序論：速發(fā)表網(wǎng)結(jié)合其深厚的文秘經(jīng)驗(yàn)，特別為您篩選了11篇英文畢業(yè)論文范文。如果您需要更多原創(chuàng)資料，歡迎隨時(shí)與我們的客服老師聯(lián)系，希望您能從中汲取靈感和知識(shí)！

篇1

Acknowledgements

篇2

英文摘要在科技論文中具有重要作用，根據(jù)EiCompendex數(shù)據(jù)庫(kù)對(duì)英文摘要的要求，從時(shí)態(tài)、語(yǔ)態(tài)等方面提出了英文摘要的寫(xiě)作規(guī)則，列舉了論文中存在的常見(jiàn)問(wèn)題，并提出了一些建議。下面是學(xué)術(shù)參考網(wǎng)小編為您搜集整理的畢業(yè)論文致謝詞英文，歡迎閱讀！

Acknowledgements

MydeepestgratitudegoesfirstandforemosttoProfessoraaa，mysupervisor，forherconstantencouragementandguidance.Shehaswalkedmethroughallthestagesofthewritingofthisthesis.Withoutherconsistentandilluminatinginstruction，thisthesiscouldnothavereacheditspresentform.

Second，IwouldliketoexpressmyheartfeltgratitudetoProfessoraaa，wholedmeintotheworldoftranslation.IamalsogreatlyindebtedtotheprofessorsandteachersattheDepartmentofEnglish：Professordddd，Professorssss，whohaveinstructedandhelpedmealotinthepasttwoyears.

Lastmythankswouldgotomybelovedfamilyfo

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1.0 前言

近15年，體裁（genre）和體裁分析（genre analysis）成為第一語(yǔ)言和第二語(yǔ)言教學(xué)領(lǐng)域里的熱門(mén)話題（Hyon 1996）。我國(guó)不少專(zhuān)家、學(xué)者都試圖把這種理論應(yīng)用在具有特定交際目的的篇章上，如分析農(nóng)業(yè)英語(yǔ)論文摘要（易興霞，2006），分析應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)領(lǐng)域?qū)W術(shù)文章的宏觀和微觀結(jié)構(gòu)（楊瑞英，2006）英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)畢業(yè)論文，分析商務(wù)促銷(xiāo)類(lèi)語(yǔ)篇（王宏俐, 郭繼榮，2006）等。本文擬從Bhatia的英文促銷(xiāo)信的體裁分析模式入手，分析主要交際目的為說(shuō)服潛在客戶購(gòu)買(mǎi)商家所提供的產(chǎn)品或接受其服務(wù)的英文促銷(xiāo)信的表現(xiàn)形式，圖式結(jié)構(gòu)和特殊信息，并通過(guò)分析語(yǔ)義的文化預(yù)設(shè)和搭配意義，加深對(duì)促銷(xiāo)信的語(yǔ)言表面特征的認(rèn)識(shí)。

2.0理論依據(jù)

2.1體裁

語(yǔ)言學(xué)中的體裁（genre）不同于文學(xué)中的體裁。Swales (1990: 45-58) 認(rèn)為體裁是在特定社會(huì)文化背景下對(duì)人類(lèi)交際事件進(jìn)行分類(lèi)的結(jié)果。所謂交際事件就是人們按照特定目的和特定程式運(yùn)用語(yǔ)言在社會(huì)中辦事的實(shí)例。新加坡的Bhatia (1993:13-16)在 Swales的體裁理論基礎(chǔ)上做了進(jìn)一步的完善, 認(rèn)為:1)體裁是一種可辨認(rèn)的交際事件;2)體裁不是一般的交際事件 ,而是一種內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)特征鮮明,高度約定俗成的交際事件;3)在建構(gòu)語(yǔ)篇時(shí) ,必須遵循某種特定體裁所要求的慣例;4)盡管體裁有其慣例和制約性, 內(nèi)行人仍可在體裁規(guī)定內(nèi)傳達(dá)個(gè)人意圖和交際目的。因此交際目的往往決定應(yīng)該使用哪種體裁，而體裁的常規(guī)性又維我們提供了可以遵循的體裁結(jié)構(gòu)潛勢(shì)。

2.2體裁分析

體裁分析是20 世紀(jì)90 年代由Swales (1990)和Bhatia (1993)發(fā)展起來(lái)的一種分析方法。他們認(rèn)為任何體裁都是由一系列的語(yǔ)輪構(gòu)成，語(yǔ)步(move)和步驟( step)是語(yǔ)篇分析的出發(fā)點(diǎn)。Swales的層次動(dòng)向法（move approach）常用在具體的體裁分析中，即根據(jù)不同的交際目的，對(duì)某一語(yǔ)篇按照意義與功能劃出層次，然后再根據(jù)層次來(lái)考察分析語(yǔ)言的表達(dá)形式。Swales 沒(méi)有對(duì)語(yǔ)步和步驟提出明確的定義,但Nwogu (1997)認(rèn)為語(yǔ)步是一個(gè)由一系列詞匯,主題意義和修辭特征所標(biāo)明的具有統(tǒng)一意義傾向的語(yǔ)篇片斷，步驟是實(shí)現(xiàn)語(yǔ)步的可供選擇的修辭策略，一個(gè)語(yǔ)步可以由一個(gè)或多個(gè)步驟來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)。例如英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)畢業(yè)論文，Bhatia (1993:62)根據(jù)體裁“ 語(yǔ)步 (moves) 和步驟( steps)”分析理論，將推銷(xiāo)體裁概括成七個(gè) “語(yǔ)步” (move) :1. Establishing credentials (確立資格證明) ; 2. Introducing the offer (介紹推銷(xiāo)內(nèi)容)：⑴offering the product orservice (介紹產(chǎn)品或服務(wù)) ,⑵ Essential detailing of the offer (介紹推銷(xiāo)內(nèi)容的重要細(xì)節(jié)) , ⑶Indicating value of the offer (指明推銷(xiāo)內(nèi)容的價(jià)值) ; 3. Offering incentives (激勵(lì)購(gòu)買(mǎi)) ; 4.Enclosing documents (附寄文件) ; 5. Soliciting response(請(qǐng)求回復(fù)) ; 6. Using pressure tactics (采用壓力策略) ; 7. Ending politely (禮貌收尾)。在以上七個(gè)“語(yǔ)步” 中 ,第二語(yǔ)步 Introducing the offer 又是由三個(gè)步驟(step)組成的。

體裁分析模式為語(yǔ)篇研究提供了新的考察視角與方式。使用體裁和體裁分析理論對(duì)某個(gè)特定語(yǔ)篇進(jìn)行分析，是對(duì)語(yǔ)篇宏觀結(jié)構(gòu)和微觀結(jié)構(gòu)分析的有機(jī)結(jié)合，既注重語(yǔ)篇結(jié)構(gòu)的宏觀結(jié)構(gòu)和認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)，也注重特定的體裁結(jié)構(gòu)在詞匯和語(yǔ)法層面的特定表現(xiàn)。

3.0體裁分析在英文促銷(xiāo)信中的應(yīng)用

3.1促銷(xiāo)信的體裁界定

促銷(xiāo)信是商務(wù)英語(yǔ)中常見(jiàn)的一種語(yǔ)篇，它是以書(shū)信的格式由促銷(xiāo)人員向顧客傳遞商品或服務(wù)的存在及其性能、特征等信息，幫助顧客認(rèn)識(shí)商品或服務(wù)所帶來(lái)的利益，從而達(dá)到引起顧客的注意和興趣、喚起需求、采取購(gòu)買(mǎi)行為的目的。因此它的本質(zhì)是銷(xiāo)售者和消費(fèi)者之間的信息溝通，主要交際目的就是通過(guò)向消費(fèi)者的宣傳、誘導(dǎo)和提示，促進(jìn)消費(fèi)者產(chǎn)生購(gòu)買(mǎi)動(dòng)機(jī)，影響消費(fèi)者的購(gòu)買(mǎi)行為，實(shí)現(xiàn)產(chǎn)品由生產(chǎn)領(lǐng)域向消費(fèi)領(lǐng)域的轉(zhuǎn)移。這樣的交際目的決定收信人和寫(xiě)信人通常為并不熟悉的雙方，因此語(yǔ)言上謙虛有禮、簡(jiǎn)潔明晰是必不可少的。

3.2 促銷(xiāo)信的內(nèi)在宏觀結(jié)構(gòu)

一封成功的促銷(xiāo)信在內(nèi)在結(jié)構(gòu)上 ,基本遵循Bhatia 的七個(gè) “語(yǔ)步”的模式 ,通過(guò)吸引客戶的注意、向客戶詳細(xì)介紹所推銷(xiāo)的產(chǎn)品或服務(wù)并索求回復(fù)等語(yǔ)篇片斷來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)說(shuō)服潛在客戶購(gòu)買(mǎi)所推銷(xiāo)產(chǎn)品或服務(wù)的交際目的。下面我們從Bhatia的英文促銷(xiāo)信的體裁分析模式入手英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)畢業(yè)論文，來(lái)具體討論促銷(xiāo)信的層次動(dòng)向。。

Dear customer,

⑴Theunion bakers would like to announce a great offer this Valentine day. Every two kg cakeyou buy you get raffle ticket which allows you to enter into a draw which willgive you a chance to win a dinner for two at a three star hotel. You can have awonderful dinner with your loved one on the eve of Valentine’s Day.

⑵ Thebakers will arrange for the pickup and drop to the venue and you can enjoy thedinner along with the dance party at the three star hotels.

⑶Don’tyou think it will be fun to take your girlfriend or boyfriend out for dinner ona valentine’s day and make the day a special one? Imagine all that fun you havewith your loved one with tasty cuisine and exciting and thrilling dance party.To top it all you can meet famous singer and dancer who is the guest of honorthat day.

⑷Visitany of our outlets to get more information. Hurry and buy a wonderful tastycake for your loved one.

⑸Sincethe offer is valid till (time how long).please act now.

⑹Sincerely,

這封促銷(xiāo)信由五段組成，第一段的第一句是第一個(gè)語(yǔ)步: Establishing credentials (確立資格證明),通過(guò)提及在情人節(jié)要提供的一項(xiàng)服務(wù)來(lái)吸引顧客的注意力；第一段的第二句到第三段是第二個(gè)語(yǔ)步：Introducing the offer (介紹推銷(xiāo)內(nèi)容)。第二個(gè)語(yǔ)步由三個(gè)步驟組成：⑴offering the product or service (介紹產(chǎn)品或服務(wù)) ,⑵ Essentialdetailing of the offer (介紹推銷(xiāo)內(nèi)容的重要細(xì)節(jié)) , ⑶Indicating value of the offer (指明推銷(xiāo)內(nèi)容的價(jià)值) 。第一段的第二句是第一個(gè)步驟，主要介紹了即將推出的服務(wù)——每買(mǎi)兩公斤蛋糕就能抽簽，就有機(jī)會(huì)贏得在三星級(jí)賓館的兩人晚宴；第一段的第三句和第二段是第二個(gè)步驟，詳細(xì)介紹推銷(xiāo)服務(wù)的細(xì)節(jié)——情人節(jié)前夕在三星級(jí)賓館和摯愛(ài)共進(jìn)晚餐、共舞；第三段是第三個(gè)步驟，主要指出推銷(xiāo)服務(wù)的精神價(jià)值——使情人節(jié)過(guò)得特別，并能遇到明星。第二個(gè)語(yǔ)步是促銷(xiāo)信最為重要的部分，決定能否幫助顧客認(rèn)識(shí)商品或服務(wù)所帶來(lái)的利益，從而達(dá)到引起顧客的注意和興趣、喚起需求、最終采取購(gòu)買(mǎi)行為的目的。第四段是第三、四個(gè)語(yǔ)步：Offering incentives (激勵(lì)購(gòu)買(mǎi))和Soliciting response(請(qǐng)求回復(fù))。第四段第一句是請(qǐng)求顧客做出回復(fù)——到銷(xiāo)售點(diǎn)尋求更多信息；第二句是鼓勵(lì)有購(gòu)買(mǎi)傾向的顧客下定決心。第五段是第五個(gè)語(yǔ)步：Using pressure tactics (采用壓力策略)，Sincerely和簽名是第六個(gè)語(yǔ)步：Ending politely (禮貌收尾)，作為傳統(tǒng)信件獨(dú)特的結(jié)尾方式，這一語(yǔ)步在促銷(xiāo)信中也很常見(jiàn)。

與Bhatia的七個(gè)語(yǔ)步模式略有不同的是：這封促銷(xiāo)信并沒(méi)有Enclosing documents (附寄文件)這一語(yǔ)步；而且Offeringincentives (激勵(lì)購(gòu) 買(mǎi))和Soliciting response(請(qǐng)求回復(fù))的順序也有所不同。王宏俐, 郭繼榮(2006)認(rèn)為，在語(yǔ)篇構(gòu)建中常使用的語(yǔ)步是核心語(yǔ)步英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)畢業(yè)論文，不太出現(xiàn)的輔語(yǔ)步是外圍語(yǔ)步，在促銷(xiāo)信中，第一、二、四語(yǔ)步是核心語(yǔ)步，由于Enclosing documents (附寄文件)這一語(yǔ)步是外圍語(yǔ)步，銷(xiāo)售者可根據(jù)情況決定是否使用；至于語(yǔ)步順序，盡管促銷(xiāo)信是專(zhuān)門(mén)用途英語(yǔ)里的一種，有其慣例和制約性，但我們?nèi)钥稍隗w裁規(guī)定內(nèi)傳達(dá)個(gè)人意圖和交際目的。

3.3 促銷(xiāo)信的文化預(yù)設(shè)和搭配意義

這實(shí)際是一封是以西方文化為背景的抽獎(jiǎng)促銷(xiāo)信。促銷(xiāo)信的最主要部分——第二語(yǔ)步也是以這個(gè)文化預(yù)設(shè)為先決條件的。銷(xiāo)售者想要促銷(xiāo)的商品是蛋糕，但在促銷(xiāo)信里，抽獎(jiǎng)有可能贏得情人節(jié)的晚餐卻是描述的重點(diǎn)，這主要是商家抓住了顧客消費(fèi)過(guò)程中的僥幸獲大利心理——以抽獎(jiǎng)贏得與摯愛(ài)在情人節(jié)共進(jìn)免費(fèi)晚餐的機(jī)會(huì)，設(shè)置中獎(jiǎng)機(jī)會(huì)，利用抽獎(jiǎng)的形式英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)畢業(yè)論文，來(lái)吸引消費(fèi)者購(gòu)買(mǎi)商品蛋糕。令人心動(dòng)的抽獎(jiǎng)活動(dòng)成功地把顧客的注意力指向拉到了本應(yīng)大力宣傳的產(chǎn)品——蛋糕上面。如果收信人不了解這個(gè)文化預(yù)設(shè)，就不容易達(dá)到促銷(xiāo)信的交際目的。

Leech（1981:17）認(rèn)為：搭配意義是指一個(gè)詞與另一個(gè)詞連用搭配時(shí)使得該詞的意義隨語(yǔ)境而發(fā)生的變化。因此促銷(xiāo)信在詞的搭配上非常注意。促銷(xiāo)信使用的形容詞大多是描述性和評(píng)價(jià)性的，多為褒義詞，例如：great, wonderful, special, tasty, exciting, thrilling, famous,wonderful, 這些形容詞為收信人勾勒出一幅浪漫、激情、美味的晚餐情景。盡管這是一封書(shū)信，但口語(yǔ)詞匯多余書(shū)面語(yǔ)詞匯，淺顯易懂、簡(jiǎn)潔明晰。銷(xiāo)售者為了推銷(xiāo)商品或者服務(wù)，常常直接使用反問(wèn)疑問(wèn)句和祈使句，增強(qiáng)引導(dǎo)功能，說(shuō)服或敦促收信人采取購(gòu)買(mǎi)行動(dòng)。

3.4 總結(jié)

體裁分析超越了對(duì)語(yǔ)篇語(yǔ)言特征的簡(jiǎn)單描述,力求解釋語(yǔ)篇的理?yè)?jù), 探討語(yǔ)篇結(jié)構(gòu)背后的社會(huì)文化因素和心理認(rèn)知因素, 揭示實(shí)現(xiàn)交際背景的特殊方式和語(yǔ)篇結(jié)構(gòu)的規(guī)范性。促銷(xiāo)信具是專(zhuān)門(mén)用途英語(yǔ)的一種，把促銷(xiāo)信這一體裁語(yǔ)篇看作是一個(gè)有規(guī)律的有結(jié)構(gòu)的層次動(dòng)向的組合的思想, 有助于我們更好地理解這種信函體裁，寫(xiě)出目的明確、結(jié)構(gòu)清晰、用詞準(zhǔn)確的促銷(xiāo)信。

參考文獻(xiàn)：

1.Hyon, Sunny. Genre in Three Traditions:Implications for ESL [J]. TESOL Quarterly, 30/ 4 :693-722, 1996.

2.易興霞.體裁分析與農(nóng)業(yè)英語(yǔ)論文摘要[J]. 西安外國(guó)語(yǔ)學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào)，2006(9):28-31.

3.楊瑞英.體裁分析的應(yīng)用：應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)學(xué)術(shù)文章結(jié)構(gòu)分析[J]. 外語(yǔ)與外語(yǔ)教學(xué)，2006(10):29-34.

4.王宏俐,郭繼榮.體裁分析與商務(wù)促銷(xiāo)類(lèi)語(yǔ)篇[J]. 外語(yǔ)教學(xué)，2006(7): 32-37.

5.Swales, J. M. Genre Analysis: English inAcademic and Research Settings [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

6.Bhatia, V. K. Analyzing Genre: Language Usein Professional Settings [M]. London: Longman, 1993.

7.Nwogu, K. N. The Medical Research Paper: Structureand Function [J]. English for Specific Purposes, 199 16 (2): 119-138.

篇4

2.1The history of British English 3

2.2 The history of American English 4

3. Grammar differences between British English and American English 6

3.1 Lexical differences 6

3.1.1The different use of collective nouns in their single or plural forms 7

3.1.2 Differences in verb 7

3.1.2.1 Differences in the inflectional endings of verbs 7

3.1.2.2Different use of present perfect tenses 8

3.1.2.3 Different use of transitive and intransitive verbs 8

3.1.2.4 Different use of "have" 9

3.1.3 Different use of function words 9

3.1.3.1 Different use of preposition and adverb 9

3.1.3.2 Different use of auxiliary verb 10

3.1.3.3 Differences in articles 11

3.2 Syntactical differences 12

3.2.1 Differences in compound object 12

3.2.2 Presence or absence of syntactic elements 13

3.2.3 Different use of subjunctive mood 13

4. The differences between British English and the special form of American English—Black English 14

5. The tendency of the development of British English and American English 17

6. Conclusion 17

Acknowledgements 19

References 19

1．Introduction

There is one play in the famous American TV series Friends: Ross will go to England to marry Emily, suddenly Rachel decides to show his love to Ross and goes to England either, so his friend Phoebe makes a call to tell the news to Ross and Emily, Emily’s housekeeper answers the call. The dialogue as follows:

Housekeeper: The Waltham Residence.

Phoebe: Oh...yes…is this…umm…Emily’s Parents’ house?

Housekeeper: This is the housekeeper speaking. And by the way, young lady, that is not how one addresses oneself on the telephone. First one identifies oneself and then asks for the person with whom one wishes to speak.

Phoebe: (In a British accent)This is Phoebe Buffay. I was wondering, please, if-if it’s not too much trouble, please, umm，might I speak to Miss Emily Waltham, please?

Housekeeper: Miss Waltham is at the rehearsal dinner and it’s not polite to make fun of people. Goodbye.

Phoebe: No,no,no, I’ll be nice, I swear!!! Could you just give me the number for where they are?

Housekeeper: I’m afraid, I’m not at liberty to divulge that information.

Phoebe: Ok, somebody is on their way to ruin wedding okay. And I have to warn somebody, alright. So if you don’t give me that number then I’m going to come over there and kick your snooty ass all the way to New Glocken...shire.

Housekeeper: Hangs up[1]

We can see from the above dialogue that British English is more serious and formal than American English. The American speaks at will while the Englishmen speak gently. As we all know the two major varieties of English used by people as native language are British and American English. There seems to be little differences between the two varieties but the influences are very different. On some occasion we may have some mistakes in communication, in order to help the English speakers and learners understand the two varieties better and to eliminate troubles that may prevent communication and English writing, so I will make analysis on the grammar differences between British English and American English.

2. British English and American English

Nowadays English has developed into a global language. The fact that such a large number of people all around the world speak English means that there are many dialects and varieties. The two major varieties of English used by people as native language are British and American English. As a message carrier, English fully reflects the unique culture possessed by the British and American countries. Since in Dissertations on the English Language, Noah Webster pointed out “several circumstances render a feature separation of the American tongue from the English necessary and unavoidable.”

2.1 The History of British English

English is a West Germanic language which originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms of England. One of these dialects, Late West Saxon, eventually came to dominate. The original Old English language was then influenced by two waves of invasion: the first by speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic language family, who conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries; the second by the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-Norman. These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree, though it was never a truly mixed language in the strict linguistic sense of the word, as mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication.

Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English; the later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance languages. This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility, resulting in an enormous and varied vocabulary. It mainly divided into four periods.

（1）Proto-English （the 5th century AD）[2]

The languages of Germanic tribes gave rise to the English language (the Angles, Saxons, Frisians, Jutes and perhaps even the Franks), who traded and fought with the Latin-speaking Roman Empire in the centuries-long process of the Germanic peoples' expansion into Western Europe. Many Latin words for common objects entered the vocabulary of these Germanic peoples before any of their tribes reached Britain; examples include camp, cheese, cook, fork, inch, kettle, kitchen, linen, mile, mill, mint (coin), noon, pillow, pin, pound, punt (boat), street and wall. The Romans also gave the English language words which they had themselves borrowed from other languages: anchor, butter, chest, devil, dish, sack and wine.

（2）Old English（AD 450—1100）[2]

The invaders' Germanic language replaced the indigenous Brythonic languages. （form one of the two branches of the Insular Celtic language family, the other being Goidelic）The original Celtic languages remained in parts of Scotland, Wales and Cornwall. The dialects spoken by the Anglo-Saxons formed what is now called Old English. Later, it was strongly influenced by the North Germanic language Norse, spoken by the Vikings （is one of the Norse (Scandinavian) explorers, warriors, merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas of Europe from the late eighth to the early eleventh century.）who invaded and settled mainly in the north-east of England. The new and the earlier settlers spoke languages from different branches of the Germanic family; many of their lexical roots were the same or similar, although their grammars were more distinct, including the prefix, suffix and inflection patterns for many words. The Germanic language of these Old English-speaking inhabitants was influenced by contact with Norse invaders, which might have been responsible for some of the morphological simplification of Old English, including the loss of grammatical gender and explicitly marked case (with the notable exception of the pronouns). The most famous surviving work from the Old English period is a fragment of the epic poem "Beowulf" composed by an unknown poet; it is thought to have been substantially modified, probably by Christian clerics long after its composition.

（3）Middle English（AD 1066-1470）[2]

For about 300 years following the Norman Conquest in 1066, the Norman kings and their high nobility spoke only one of the langues d'oïl called Anglo-Norman, whilst English continued to be the language of the common people. Various contemporary sources suggest that within fifty years of the invasion, most of the Normans outside the royal court spoke English, with French remaining the prestige language of government and law, largely out of social inertia. For example, Orderic Vitalis, a historian born in 1075 and the son of a Norman knight, said that he learned French only as a second language. A tendency for French-derived words to have more formal connotations has continued to the present day; most modern English speakers would consider a "cordial reception" (from French) to be more formal than a "hearty welcome" (Germanic). Another example is the very unusual construction of the words for animals being separated from the words for their food products e.g. beef and pork (from the French bœuf and porc) being the products of the Germanically named animals 'cow' and 'pig'.                  

（4）Modern English（1500 up to the present）[2]

Modern English can be divided into two parts: early modern english(1500-1800)and late modern English. Modern English is often dated from the Great Vowel Shift, which took place mainly during the 15th century. English was further transformed by the spread of a standardized London-based dialect in government and administration and by the standardizing effect of printing. By the time of William Shakespeare (mid-late 16th century), the language had become clearly recognizable as Modern English.

English has continuously adopted foreign words, especially from Latin and Greek, since the Renaissance. (In the 17th century, Latin words were often used with the original inflections, but these eventually disappeared). As there are many words from different languages and English spelling is variable, the risk of mispronunciation is high, but remnants of the older forms remain in a few regional dialects, most notably in the West Country.

In 1755, Samuel Johnson published the first significan t English dictionary, his Dictionary of the English Language.

2.2 The history of American English

During the 17th century, or more precisely on May 14, 1607, the first English settlers landed in Virginia. This was a group of 104 London entrepreneurs and they established the first English colony in Jamestown. Later on, in 1620, the Pilgrim Fathers, settlers from England, landed in Massachusetts, and also brought the English language over the Atlantic Ocean to America and another variety of English was born, American English. This variety is the largest of all the English varieties, since as many as 70% of the native English speakers live in the US. American English has preserved a number of words and features from the English spoken in England at the time of the settlement, which have now been changed in British English.

The history of American English can be divided into the colonial (1607-1776), the national (1776-1898), and the international (1898-present) periods. During nearly four hundred years of use in North America, the English language changed in small ways in pronunciation and grammar but extensively in vocabulary and in the attitude of its speakers. English settlements along the Atlantic Coast during the seventeenth century provided the foundation for English as a permanent language in the New World. But the English of the American colonies was bound to become distinct from that of the motherland. When people do not talk with one another, they begin to talk differently. The Atlantic Ocean served as an effective barrier to oral communication between the colonists and those who stayed in England, ensuring that their speech would evolve in different directions.[3]

   Americans also came cheek-to-jowl with "Amerindians" of several linguistic stocks, as well as French and Dutch speakers. They had to talk in new ways to communicate with their new neighbors. Moreover, the settlers had come from various districts and social groups of England, so there was a homogenizing effect: those in a given colony came to talk more like one another and less like any particular community in England. All these influences combined to make American English a distinct variety of the language. In the United States, there are also regional differences, and these are ultimately descendants of a mixture of accents spoken in the British Isles at the time of the settlement of America. Dialect boundaries in the US tend to run from east to west. The first immigrants settled along the Atlantic coast and they spread from east to west across the continent and took some dialect forms, for example words and pronunciation features, with them. The dialect areas in North America are much larger than they are in England, mainly because English has been spoken in England for about 1,500 years, but in America for only approximately 300 years. Because of America’s recent settlement, there has not been enough time for linguistic changes and this is why there are not so many dialect differences in this large country.

 

3. Grammar differences between British English and American English

English grammar is the set of rules within the English language itself. "An English grammar"(one kind of grammar system)is a specific study or analysis of these rules. In linguistics, grammar refers to the logical and structural rules that govern the composition of sentences, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes lexicology and syntax, often complemented by phonetics, phonology, semantics, and pragmatics. I mainly make analysis on the lexical and syntactical differences between British English and American English.

3.1 Lexical Differences

Lexicology is that part of linguistics which studies words, their nature and meaning, words’ elements, relations between words (semantical relations), words groups and the whole lexicon. Lexical differences mean relating to the words’ differences of a language.

3.1.1 The different use of collective nouns in their single or plural forms

Collective nouns such as “team, faculty, family, government” often take plural verb agreement and plural pronoun substitution in Britain English, but they nearly always take singular agreement and singular pronoun substitution in American English. There is a tendency in Britain English, to stress the individuality of the members, which is reflected in plural verb agreement and pronoun substitution, whereas American English Strongly tends to stress the unitary function of the group, which is reflected in singular verb and pronoun forms.[4] 6

Some examples:

Your team is doing well this year, isn’t it? (AmE)

Your team are doing well this year, aren’t they? (BrE)

3.1.2 Differences in Verb

In syntax, a verb is a word (part of speech) that usually denotes an action (bring, read), an occurrence (decompose, glitter), or a state of being (exist, stand). Depending on the language, a verb may vary in form according to many factors, possibly including its tense, aspect, mood and voice. It may also agree with the person, gender, and/or number of some of its arguments (subject, object).

3.1.2.1 Differences in the Inflectional Endings of Verbs

The past tense and past participle of the verbs are different in BrE and AmE.

The past tense and past participle of the verbs learn, spoil, spell, burn, dream, smell, spill, leap, and others, can be either irregular (learnt, spoilt, etc.) or regular (learned, spoiled, etc.). In BrE, the irregular and regular forms are current; in some cases (smelt, leapt) there is a strong tendency towards the irregular forms (especially by speakers using Received Pronunciation); in other cases (dreamed, leaned, learned) the regular forms are somewhat more common. In AmE, the irregular forms are never or rarely used (except for burnt and leapt).

Nonetheless, as with other usages considered nowadays to be typically British, the t endings are often found in older American texts. However, usage may vary when the past participles are actually adjectives, as in burnt toast.( Note that the two-syllable form learned ['lə:nid] usually written simply as learnt, is still used as an adjective to mean "educated", or to refer to academic institutions, in both BrE and AmE.)Finally, the past tense and past participle of dwell and kneel are more commonly dwelt and knelt on both sides of the Atlantic, although dwelled and kneeled are widely used in the US (but not in the UK).

In British English, the past tense of “get’’ is “got”, while American English usually use its past participle “gotten”.

For example,

A. John has got much better during the last week. (BrE)

B. John has gotten much better during the last week. (AmE)

According to the custom that British English usually uses “got” while American English “gotten”, we can quickly tell the nationality of the speaker. The former is British and the later is American. When Americans use “got”, they mean “own, possess and dominate”, such as the following two examples:

They’ve got no pride.

I’ve got plenty of material if I can just handle it.

3.1.2.2 Different use of present perfect tenses

Traditionally, BrE uses the present perfect tense to talk about an event in the recent past(express an action that has occurred in the recent past that has an effect on the present moment) and with the words already, just, and yet. For example:

British English:[5]

I've just had lunch

I've already seen that film

Have you finished your homework yet?

American English:[5]

I just had lunch or I've just had lunch.

I've already seen that film OR I already saw that film.

Have your finished your homework yet? Or did you finish your homework yet?

In American usage, these meanings can be expressed with the present perfect (to express a fact) or the simple past (to imply an expectation). This American style has become widespread only in the past 20 to 30 years; the British style is still in common use as well. In British English the present perfect is used to.

"I've just arrived home." / "I just arrived home."

"I've already eaten." / "I already ate." [6]

Recently, the American use of just with simple past has made inroads into BrE, most visibly in advertising slogans and headlines such as "Cable broadband just got faster".

Similarly, AmE occasionally replaces the pluperfect with the preterite. Also, US spoken usage sometimes, especially with the contracted forms, substitutes the conditional for the pluperfect (If I would have cooked the pie we could have had it for lunch), but this tends to be avoided in writing.[6]

3.1.2.3 Different use of transitive and intransitive verbs

The following verbs show differences in transitivity between BrE and AmE.[6]

agree: transitive or intransitive in BrE, usually intransitive in AmE (agree a contract/agree to or on a contract). However, in formal AmE legal writing one often sees constructions like as may be agreed between the parties (rather than as may be agreed upon between the parties).

appeal(as a decision): usually intransitive in BrE (used with against) and transitive in AmE (appeal against the decision to the Court/appeal the decision to the Court).

cater("to provide food and service"): intransitive in BrE, transitive in AmE (to cater for a banquet/to cater a banquet).

claim: sometimes intransitive in BrE (used with for), strictly transitive in AmE.

protest: in the sense of "oppose", intransitive in BrE, transitive in AmE (The workers protested against the decision/The workers protested the decision). The intransitive protest against in AmE means, "to hold or participate in a demonstration against". The older sense "proclaim" is always transitive (protest one's innocence).

write: in BrE, the indirect object of this verb usually requires the preposition to, for example, I'll write to my MP or I'll write to her (although it is not required in some situations, for example when an indirect object pronoun comes before a direct object noun, for example, I'll write her a letter). In AmE, write can be used monotransitively (I'll write my congressman; I'll write him).

3.1.2.4 Different use of “have”.

British English usually uses “Have you any children?” or “Have you got any

children?” while Americans commonly express the same meaning with “Do you have any children?”Let us see some other examples.

How many brothers do you have? (AmE)

How many brothers have you? (BrE)

You don’t have much room here. (AmE)

You haven’t (got) much room here. (BrE)

3.1.3 Different use of function words

Function words (or grammatical words) are words that have little lexical meaning or have ambiguous meaning, but instead serve to express grammatical relationships with other words within a sentence, or specify the attitude or mood of the speaker. Words that are not function words are called content words (or lexical words): these include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and most adverbs, although some adverbs are function words (e.g., then and why). Dictionaries define the specific meanings of content words, but can only describe the general usages of function words. By contrast, grammars describe the use of function words in detail, but treat lexical words in general terms only. Now I will compare the different use of function words in BrE and AE in detail as follows.

3.1.3.1 Different use of preposition and adverb

Differences between British and American English in prepositions are shown in the following two aspects: (1) different use of prepositions in the construction of phrases; (2) when using phrases, one will use a preposition while the other will omit it.

(1)Let us first review the different use of prepositions.

Your daughter’s name stands first in the list. (BrE)

Your daughter’s name stands first on the list. (AmE)

These dresses are in a sale. (BrE)

These dresses are on sale. (AmE)

He will come here at a quarter to three. (BrE, AmE)

He will come here at a quarter before /of / till three. (AmE)

She lives just round the corner (BrE).[7]4

She lives just around the corner (AmE).

Similarly, “five past nine” can be expressed in American English by “five after nine” or “nine five”. In front of “weekend” and “Christmas”, British English uses “at” or “over”, while American English adopts “over” or “on”.

At the weekend / Christmas (BrE)

Over the weekend / Christmas (BrE, AmE)

On the weekend / Christmas (AmE)

(2) Omitting preposition[8]2

In British English, before “day”, “week” or “certain day”, preposition “on” shall be used, while it is not so in American English.

The new term begins on September 1. (BrE)

The new term begins September 1. (AmE)

I’ll see you on Monday. (BrE)

I’ll see you Monday. (AmE)

In American English, when “home” is used as an adverb, the preposition “at” is not needed. But, in British English, “at” is required before “home”. Hence, “at home” is used in British English.

Is he home? (AmE)

Is he at home? (BrE)

3.1.3.2 Different use of auxiliary verb

In linguistics, an auxiliary is a verb functioning to give further semantic or syntactic information about the main or full verb following it. There are three types: Modal auxiliaries，have and go.

No matter in the frequency or the tendency of auxiliary verb, AmE differs from BrE. Their differences are stated as follows:.

(1)shall

Shall in BrE, is widely used in the fist person to raise questions, answer questions ,or to express future, while in AmE it is only used in the law file or informal style paper. In formal style paper, people usually use will or should. Such as:

Br.E:1)I shall tell you later.

Am.E:1)I will tell you later.

2)Shall I drink this now?

2)Should I drink this now?

(2)would[9]2

Would has two special usages in AmE, firstly it can show the usual action in the past. such as: When I was small, I would go there everyday.

However in BrE, the past tense or used to can express the past uaual action, therefore in BrE the above sentence should be changed into: When I was small, I went there everyday. Or When I was wmall, I used to go there everyday.

Secondly, would in AmE can express hypothesis in some informal language, quite like a kind of subjunctive mood, however in BrE not.

Try to compare:

Am.E:1)I wish I would have done it.

2)If I would have seen one, I would have bought it for you.

Br.E(it also the same with AmE):1)I wish I had done it.

2)If I had seen one, I would have bought it for you.

In Br.E, “would” and “will” can express suppose, while in Am.E the auxiliary verb “should” and “must” express supposition. Try to compare:

Br.E:1)That will be the postman at the door.

2)That would be zhongshan Road over there.

 

Am.E:　1)That must be (should be)the mailman at the door.

2)That should be(must be)Zhongshan Rood over there.

(3)used to

“Used to” in AmE is not seen as Modal auxiliary, but seen as notional word. To the opposite, in Br.E, used to is just seen as modal auxiliary, can offer or deny questions, also can be used as notional word but people use “do” to offer or deny questions. For example:

1)He used to go there.(notional verb)

Did he use to go there.(notional verb)

2)Used he to go there.(auxiliary verb)

He used not to go there.(auxiliary verb)

(4)ought to[9]6

“Ought to” is widely used in BrE to raise or deny questions, but in AmE use “should” to substitute for it, such as:

Br.E:1)Ought we to eat lunch?

Am.E:1)Should we eat lunch?

2)You ought not(oughtn’t) to have said that.      2)You shouldn’t have said that.

In AmE, ought to and used to are all used as notional verbs in the informal papers and such forms are said to be not standard forms. For example:

1)Did you ought to say that?

2)You didn’t ought to have said that.

(5) Different use of the indefinite pronoun “one”

 In BrE we can use “one” to indicate the “one” of the former writing again while in AmE we usually use “he” or “his” to instead the “one” of the former writing. For instance:

One cannot succeed unless one works hard.(BrE)

One cannot succeed unless he works hard.(AmE)

3.1.3.3 Differences in articles[19]

(1)The omitting of articles

Most phrases of British English have articles, while those of American English do not have. The “the” in the standard expressions in British English “all the afternoon”, “all the winter”, “all the week”, “this time of the year”, ect. But the articles are usually omitted in American English. For example:

The swimming pools are open all summer.

I’ll be here all afternoon.

He has been gone all week.

British English will use articles in front of “sickness”, “river” and etc., while American English does not. For example,

British English expresses in the form of “the measles”, “the mumps”, “the flu”, “the Niagara Falls” and “the Black Creek”, while American English says “measles”, “mumps”, “flu”, “Niagara Falls” and “Black Creek”.

However, there are exceptions. In some expressions, British English does not use articles, while American English does.

BrE                         AmE

Go into hospital                Go into the hospital

In hospital                   In the hospital

At university                  At the university

Sentences are as follows:

Next day, the rain began. (BrE)

The next day, the rain began. (AmE)

In future, I’d like you to pay more attention to detail. (BrE)

In the future, I’d like you to pay more attention to detail. (AmE)

(2) The position of articles

British English and American English are different from each other in the use of “a” or “an” with “half”. In British English, “a” follows “half”, for example, “half a dozen”, “half an hour”, “half a mile”, and “half a pound”. In American English, “a” is put in front of “half”, for example, “a half dozen”, “a half hour”, “a half mile” and “a half pound”.

3.2 Syntactical differences

Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing sentences in natural languages. The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can perform a communicative function. I will explain the syntactic differences as follows.

3.2.1Differences in compound object[20]

The Verb“ -to do” usually used as compound object in British English, While past participle or past participle phrase mostly used as compound object in American English. Try to compare:

1)He also had ordered his luggage to be labeled for crew.(Bronte.)   (BrE)

2)Last year an American hotel manager ordered his quests evacuated after an anonymous bomb threat.(AmE)

3)I have a roll that was in dead storage during the war which I ordered put back in running order. (O' Hara) (AmE)

The two compound structures (compound object with past participle and compound object with –to do) are both used in the BrE and AmE, while the AmE use compound object more frequent ly than BrE. However, there are some differences in the routine usage of Verb related to this phrase structure. The verb “to order” usually linked with the compound structure with past participle in AmE, but linked with the compound structure with “verb -to do” in BrE.

3.2.2 Presence or absence of syntactic elements[11]

Where a statement of intention involves two separate activities, it is acceptable for speakers of AmE to use to go plus bare infinitive. Speakers of BrE would instead use to go and plus bare infinitive. Thus, where a speaker of AmE might say I'll go take a bath, BrE speakers would say I'll go and have a bath. (Both can also use the form to go to instead to suggest that the action may fail, as in He went to take/have a bath, but the bath was full of children.) Similarly, to come plus bare infinitive is acceptable to speakers of AmE, where speakers of BrE would instead use to come and plus bare infinitive. Thus, where a speaker of AmE might say come see what I bought, BrE speakers would say come and see what I've bought (notice the present perfect tense: a common British preference).

As to whether a preposition is used before days denoted by a single word, British people would say she resigned on Thursday, while Americans often say she resigned Thursday, but both forms are common in American usage. Occasionally, in AmE the preposition is also absent when referring to months: I'll be here December (although this usage is generally limited to colloquial speech).But, it will say “I’ll be here on December.” in BrE.

In the UK, from is used with single dates and times more often than in the United States. Where British speakers and writers may say the new museum will be open from Tuesday, Americans most likely say the new museum will be open starting Tuesday. (This difference does not apply to phrases of the pattern from A to B, which are used in both BrE and AmE.) A variation or alternative of this is the most American will say “the play opens Tuesday” and the most British will say “the play opens on Tuesday”. American legislators and lawyers always use the preposition of between the name of a legislative act and the year it was passed, while their British colleagues do not. We can see such differences by making comparison between Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 and Disability Discrimination Act 1995.

3.2.3 Different use of subjunctive mood

The subjunctive mood used more in AmE than in BrE, which is mainly used in the formal style paper.

In subjunctive mood, American English will rarely reserve traditional subjunctive words.

I suggest that meeting be postponed. (AmE)

I suggest that meeting should be postponed. (BrE)

I wish I had done it. (AmE)

I wish I would have done it. (BrE)

4. The grammatical differences between British English and the special form of American English—Black English

Black English also called African American Vernacular English which is an African American variety (dialect, ethnolect and sociolect) of American English.There are four points in which black English differs from British English.

1)Negation

In addition, negatives are formed differently from standard American English:

Use of ain't as a general negative indicator. It can be used where Standard English would use am not, isn't, aren't, haven't and hasn't, a trait which is not specific to AAVE. However, in marked contrast to other varieties of English in the U.S., some speakers of AAVE also use ain't instead of don't, doesn't, or didn't (e.g., I ain't know that).[14] Ain't had its origins in common English, but became increasingly stigmatized since the 19th century. See also amn't.

Negative concord, popularly called "double negation", as in I didn't go nowhere; if the sentence is negative, all negatable forms are negated. This contrasts with Standard English, where a double negative is considered a positive (although this wasn't always so; see double negative). There is also "triple" or "multiple negation", as in the phrase I don't know nothing about no one no more, which would be "I don't know anything about anybody anymore" in Standard English.

In a negative construction, an indefinite pronoun such as nobody or nothing can be inverted with the negative verb particle for emphasis (eg. Don't nobody know the answer, Ain't nothin' goin' on.)

While these are features that AAVE has in common with Creole languages,[15] Howe and Walker use data from early recordings of African Nova Scotian English, Samaná English, and the recordings of former slaves to demonstrate that negation was inherited from nonstandard colonial English.

Some of these characteristics, notably doubl e negatives and the omission of certain auxiliaries such as the has in has been are also characteristic of general colloquial American English.

2)The omission of copula in black English

You crazy! ("You're crazy") or She my sister ("She's my sister"). The phenomenon is also observed in questions: Who you? ("Who're you?") and Where you at? ("Where are you (at)?"). On the other hand, a stressed is cannot be dropped: She is my sister.

Only the forms is and are (the latter of which, in any case, is often replaced by is) can be omitted. These forms cannot be omitted when they are pronounced with a stress (whether or not the stress serves specifically to impart an emphatic sense to the verb's meaning).

These forms cannot be omitted when the corresponding form in Standard English cannot show contraction (and vice-versa). For example, I don't know where he is cannot be reduced to (BrE) I don't know where he because in Standard English the corresponding reduction I don't know where he's is likewise impossible. (Though I don't know where he at is possible.) Possibly some other minor conditions apply as well.[16]

  3)Present-tense verbs uninflected for number/person

there is no -s ending in the present-tense third-person singular. Example: She write poetry ("She writes poetry"). Similarly, was is used for what in standard English are contexts for both was and were.[17]

  4)The word it or is denoting the existence of something

This usage is equivalent to Standard English there in "there is", or "there are". It is also found in the English of the US South. Examples its a doughnut in the cabinet ("There's a doughnut in the cabinet") and It ain't no spoon ("There isn't a spoon", also "They ain't no spoon").[17]

5) Altered syntax in questions

Why they ain't growin'? ("Why aren't they growing?") and Who the hell she think she is? ("Who the hell does she think she is?") lack the inversion of standard English. Because of this, there is also no need for the auxiliary DO.[18]

To put it simply, we can summarize the grammatical differences between British and American daily English as follows[19]:

(1) Sometimes, British and American English use different grammatical forms to express the same meaning;

(2) Sometimes, the same grammatical form expresses different meanings in British and American English;

(3) In some structures, either British English or American English will use integrated grammatical form, while the other adopts the omitted form;

(4) Sometimes, American and British English use the same grammatical form to express the same concept and meaning.

However, one of them may have another expression form, while the other does not. We could only avoid misunderstanding by paying attention to those differences in our study.

5. The tendency of the development of British English and American English

The English language changes as the rapid development of politics, economic, culture in Britain and American. After it goes through the three periods (old English, middle English and modern English),it also changes everyday, especially in the related ten years, the changes of English becomes more obvious. Although the English structure is not as obvious as the lexical development, it does not ignore. On the aspect of grammar, English experience the changes from the verb inflections of old English to use word in order to express meaning in the past 1500years, and English also become analytic language from synthetic language. Such experience makes English flexible, meanwhile it also broke the traditional grammar frame, the former disagreed rules transferred into acceptable English even native English. The speed on renewing lexical words is very fast.

On the whole, British English and American English fuse with each other, and they tend to be brief, clear and more flexible for use.

 

6．Conclusion

As the globalization and information world developed, more and more people from different countries use the same language―English to communicate and exchange ideas with each other. The above discussion about grammar difference between British English and American English is what I have found and concluded. Although there are many differences in detailed aspects in the use of daily British and American English, they are similar to each other in most of aspects. Therefore, they shall only be considered as different forms of the same language rather than two different languages. In addition, we cannot say which one is better or advanced. Any judgment or opinion that “British English is better or worse than American English” is biased. The purpose of this paper is to help English learners understand the two varieties better and eliminate some mistakes caused in communication or paper writing.

The differences between the British English and American English are caused by politics, economy, social life, culture, and geography. American English developed from British English, but it differs from British English. All in all, sinc e English is characterized by its huge vocabulary, great tolerance, and conciseness, it leaves little room for argument that English will be well on its way to be a diversified common language.

 

Acknowledgements

My initial thanks go to my supervisor Zhu Min, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.

I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. They are Mao Can、Gao YunPing and many others.

My greatest personal debt is to my grandparents and parents, who have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me.

The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.

 

References

[1] 周樂(lè), 美式英語(yǔ)與英式英語(yǔ)比較與分析[J]. 湖南商學(xué)院外語(yǔ)系,2008.

[2] Wikipedia Contributors

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_English_language

[3] blog.languagetranslation.com/public/item/118655

[4] 王振明和公麗艷，英式英語(yǔ)與美式英語(yǔ)的差異[J]. 山東教育學(xué)院學(xué)報(bào),2002.

[5] esl.about.com/od/toeflieltscambridge/a/dif_ambrit.htm

[6]en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_English_differences#Use_of_tenses

[7] 孟憲友，英語(yǔ)與美語(yǔ)的差別對(duì)比研究[J]. 廣州大學(xué)外國(guó)語(yǔ)學(xué)院英語(yǔ)系,2002.

, Jour.of N.W. SCI-TECH Uni.of Agri.and Fore,2001.

, Journal of Shijiazhuang Teachers College,2001

, Journal of Wuhu Vocational Institute of Technology,2007

[11]Wikipedia Contributors

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_English_differences

, Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Sciences), 2007

[13]張振邦,新編語(yǔ)法教程[M].上海,上海教育出版社,1993

, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 

[15] Winford, Donald (1992), "Back to the past: The BEV/creole connection revisited", Language Variation and Change 4 (3): 311-357

[16] Geoff Pullum, "Why Ebonics Is No Joke" Lingua Franca transcript, 17 October 1998, Australian Broadcasting Corporation.

[17] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English#Negation

篇5

2.1 Ezra Pound 2

2.2 Imagism    ………………………………………………………… …………...….. .4

3. Imagistic features of Pound's poetry 5

3.1 The use of Image 5

3.1.1 Image progress…..……………………………………………………………… ……6

3.1.2 Image superposition………………………………………………………………….. 8

3.1.3 Image juxtaposition………………………………………………………………...…9

3.2 Concise Language………………..………………….…………………………...…….10

3.3 Musical Rhythm ...……………………………………………………………………..11

4. Influence of Pound’s poetry 12

4.1 The impact on domestic literature ...…………… …………………………………… 13

4.2 The impact on foreign literature ...………….…………………………………………14

5. Conclusion 16

Acknowledgement. 17

Reference 18

 

1．Introduction

Imagism was a movement in the early 20th-century Anglo-American poetry that favored precision of imagery, and clear, sharp language. The Imagists rejected the sentiment and discursiveness typical of much Romantic and Victorian poetry. This was in contrast to their contemporaries, the Georgian poets, who were by and large content to work within that tradition. Ezra Weston Loomis Pound was an American expatriate poet, critic and intellectual who was a major figure of the Modernist movement in the first half of the 20th century. He is generally considered the poet most responsible for defining and promoting a modernist aesthetic in poetry.11

As the father of Modernism, Ezra Pound plays an important role in Poetry modernization process. Therefore, we can get a clear understanding of imagism poems by studying Pound’s poems and translation works. The thesis will focus on studying image to analysis Ezra Pound’s poems. According to Pound's Imagist poems and other predecessors’ studies of his works, this thesis will summarize the language characteristics of Pound’s poetry and analysis his imagist poetry style, so as to provide some theoretical concept from the view of reading, understanding and appreciating modern English poetry, thus making it easier for Chinese readers to appreciate English poetry.

The first part summarizes Ezra Pound’s life and theoretical basis of Imagism. The second part, as analysis of Pound's poetry, departs into three parts—the use of image, concise language and musical rhythm. It introduces three kinds of combination of images, and uses Pound’s poems to explain the combination of images. The third part is about the influence of Pound poetry on domestic and foreign literature

2. Ezra Pound and Imagism

As the father of modernism which is the main stream of literature in the twentieth century, Ezra Pound definitely plays a predominant role in the evolution of modernist poetry. Its starting point is Imagism.

Ezra Pound’s Imagist theory is mainly based on the aesthetic theories proposed by W. B. Yeats, Ford Madox Ford and T. E. Hulme. Yeats is famous for a symbolist who emphasizes subjective conception and imaginative association，but this school tends to lapse into sentimentality; Ford is famous for an impressionist who emphasizes objective writing with clarity and precision, but this school tends to lapse into the level of description. Pound absorbs the strengths of Yeat’s subjectivity and Ford’s objectivity and finds a way to make natural objects convey subjective emotion by virtue of association of the mind.

2.1 Ezra Pound 

 Ezra Pound(1885一1972)was born in Hally, Idaho, in October, 1885.Then he attended Hamilton College and the University of Pennsylvania，where he majored in romance Philology while reading through a large Portion of classical and European literature. Dissatisfied with the genteel tradition and Popular romanticism dominating the American literary tastes，Pound moved to Europe in1908一first to London，then to Paris，and finally to Rapallo, Italy. In 1909，Pound met W. B. Yeats and Ford Madox Ford. He was greatly influenced by these two and tried to combine Yeat’s symbolism with Ford’s impressionism. About the same period of time, Pound got in touch with T. E. Hulme and became interested in his Poetic theory.

All these ideas became the theoretical basis of the well-known Imagist and Vortieist Movement. Later，inspired by American sinologist Ernest Fenollosa’s theory on the Chinese writing characters，Pound proposed the Ideogramic Method which was based on the chief principles of the Imagist and Vorticist Movement. As the advocate and leader of the movement Pound exerted a great influence on the Imagist poetry writers. Pound also attempted to combine poetry with music, painting and scu1pture.Vortieism was such a typical example.

Ezra Pound is generally considered the poet most responsible for defining and promoting a modernist aesthetic in poetry. In the early teens of the twentieth century, he opened a seminal exchange of work and ideas between British and American writers, and was famous for the generosity with which he advanced the work of such major contemporaries as W. B. Yeats, Robert Frost, William Carlos Williams, Marianne Moore, H. D., James Joyce, Ernest Hemingway and especially T. S. Eliot. Pound also had a profound influence on Irish writers W. B. Yeats and James Joyce.

Pound is not only a poet, but also a translator, essayist and literary critic. His own significant contributions to poetry begin with his promulgation of Imagism, a movement in poetry which derived its technique from classical Chinese and Japanese poetry which are stressing clarity, precision, and economy of language, and foregoing traditional rhyme and meter in order to, in Pound's words, “compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in the sequence of the metronome.” His later work, for nearly fifty years, focused on the encyclopedic epic poem he entitled The Cantos, which was regarded as poetic masterpiece of the twentieth century.  He is really an original and creative poet in the twentieth century, a literary giant who plays a prominent role in the development of modernist poetry.

2.2 Imagism

Imagism was a poetic movement which flourished in London between 1910 and 1917 and had an enduring and pervasive influence on English-language poetry in the twentieth century.

The Imagists published four annual anthologies from 1914 to 1917, with a final anthology in 1930. They were led by Ezra Pound who first called them “Les Imagists”, choosing a French term to associate the group with the various French avant-garde movements which became the Roger Fry’s influential Post-Impressionist exhibition in 1910. The group included Hilda Doolittle, John Gould Fletcher, Amy Lowell, Richard Aldington, and, marginally, D. H. Lawrence, but they had only a loose and shifting affiliation and it was mainly Pound’s talents as a promoter and critic that gave a semblance of unity.

Pound’s favored spelling of Imagists was a gesture of homage to the first school of modern poets, the symbolists, whose best-known members were Baudelaire, Mallarme, Verlaine, and Rimbaud, but Pound criticized the French Symbolists as often as he praised them. The first principle of Imagism was “Direct treatment of the thing” [3]72, clearly in contrast to Mallarme’s famous dictum that to name a thing was to take away half the pleasure and whereas Verlaine in his “Art of Poetry” advised an “indefinite music”. Pound spoke for an “absolute rhythm”, a rhythm that is in poetry which corresponds exactly to the emotion or shade of emotion to be expressed.

 Nonetheless, Pound’s ascorbic but well-judged criticism of his contemporaries, his accurate sense of what was good in verse, and his own aphoristic brilliance, gave this small movement (which was not really even a movement outside of Pound’s rhetoric) a formative role in defining the twentieth-century poet as someone who was in the intellectual avant-garde, purifying the language of the tribe, spurning flaccid and self-important and merely derived patterns of language use, and generally breaking with the idea of fixed metrical rules. Many of these principles were clearly articulated in the essay “Imagism” in Poetry (March 1913) which was offered as an interview-cum- report by F. S. Flint but shows the hand of Pound throughout. According to Flint, the three principles of Imagism were:

“1. Direct treatment of the “thing”, whether subjective or objective.

2. To use absolutely no word that did not contribute to the presentation.

3. As regarding rhythm: to compose in sequence of the musical phrase, not in sequence of a metronome. ” [4]12

In an essay “A Few Don’ts by An Imagist” by Pound in the same issue offers a definition of the Image as “that which presents an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time” [5]54, the key point being the compression of intellectual and emotional experience into an instant. He goes on to offer his own set of “Don’ts”:

“Use no superfluous word, no adjective, which does not reveal something.

Don’t use such an expression as “dim land of peace”. It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol.

Go in fear of abstractions. Don’t retell in mediocre verse what has already been done in good prose. Don’t think any intelligent person is going to be deceived when you try to shirk all the difficulties of the unspeakably cliff cult art of good prose by chopping your composition into line. ” [6]31

3.  Imagistic Features of Pound's Poetry

Imagist poetry has three distinctive artistic characteristics. First, the Imagist poems request to convey the complex imagery directly, use sculpture and painting in the performance of imagery. It objects to musical and mystery object to lyrics. It advances the “Do not say” and “Do not you narrative” [6]9, only to show without comment. Second, the Imagist poems use concise language, no adjectives and qualifier, no decorative “lace” and flaunting words. It writes short lines, with imagery. Third, the Imagist poetry Images focus on the intrinsic rhythm of imagery combination, blend the imagery and the contained idea.

3.1 The use of Image

The word “Image” used in the field of literature is derived from the theory of Chinese poetry. It is an important linguistic terms which have been widely used in Chinese poetry. Therefore, when people refer to “image” in literature, it also refers to “image” poetry. Poetry image is the basic constituent element of poetry. It is the soul and essence features of poetry, and it plays a vital role in poetry.

Pound’s work as poet, critic，editor，and promoter of the new style was crucial to its initial period，in the decade around the First World War，and what was most essential to his conception of what was truly modern was a single word: Image. Pound’s best poems were assured achievement in the Imagist Movement when literature in English became recognizably modern. The modern revolution in literary style came from a main impulse一focus on the image.

 Aesthetic theorist and imagist poet T. E. Hulme must be credited with the initial emphasis on the image，for he first formulated the doctrine that “Images in verse are not mere decoration, but the very essence of an intuitive language.”2 It was also Pound who showed in practice how far this definition could be carried into the making of short and then longer poems. Pound emphasized the concentration of intellectual and emotional content possible in a poetic image, though it mirrored only a brief moment of experience. He took the image to be the poet’s “primary pigment” and stressed the hardness, or concreteness, of sensory language, telling poets to “Go in fear of abstractions”. Besides concreteness, Pound stressed exactness of diction, the mot just of Flaubert, and clarity, and “As regarding rhythm: to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in the sequence of the metronome”. Thus, along with the image emerged free verse, newly understood as an appropriate organic rhythm, suited to the mood of the individual poem.

In short, Pound’s Imagism was intended to carry symbolism forward towards a greater poetic realism, keeping the poet’s vision always in touch with the world of his senses, holding firmly to the principle that truth should be visible in things, rather than in visible beyond them.

  As we all know ancient Chinese poetry and Japanese haiku had an important influence on Pound, especially the ancient Chinese poetry. Pound didn’t just pay attention to the ‘exotic surface’ of the Chinese language but its linguistic nature and the abstract feelings that lie behind it. He not only translated lots of Chinese poems but also learned the useful and particular writing techniques. It can be seen clearly the imitation of the style of Chinese poetry from Pound’ poems.

In the following text I will focus on three types of combination of image--image progress, image superposition and image juxtaposition. These three modes of combination of image are very typical East or Chinese-style image, which is characterized by only using nouns rather than verbs. This image processing techniques in ancient poetry in China is nothing unusual or surprising. And they are also wildly used in Pound’s poetry and become his representative features.

3.1.1 Image Progress

Image progress is a combination of images which structured in accordance with the objective rule. It is a common writing technique used by ancient Chinese poets. For example, the famous Chinese poetry《敕勒歌》：

“敕勒川，陰山下，天似穹廬，籠蓋四野。

天蒼蒼、野茫茫，風(fēng)吹草低見(jiàn)牛羊。”

In this poem, the author wrote from the mountains to near grass, from the sky to earth. He ranged the images under the rule of direction--from far to near. Therefore the author could make the meaning of this poem very clear.

Ezra Pound successfully used Image progress writing technique in his poems. Take Pound’s poem “Salutation” for example:

O generation of the thoroughly smug

and thoroughly uncomfortable,

    I have seen fishermen picnicking in the sun,

    I have seen them with untidy families,

    I have seen their smiles full of teeth

     and heard ungainly laughter.

    And I am happier than you are,

    And they were happier than I am;

    And the fish swim in the lake

and do not even own clothing.

                                    -----by Ezra Pound “Salutation”

In this poem, Pound first wrote the happy “fishermen”. They eat in the wild, sleep on the ground, with the untidy families, but they laugh to their hearts’ contact.  Then he compared “I” with “you”, finding that “I am happier than you”. He compared the “fishermen” with “I”, finding that “they were happier than I am”. At last he described the free “fish”, it swims freely in the lake and even wears nothing. Pound wrote four aspects: the “fishermen”, “I”, “you” and the “fish”. He made a structured comparison of each of the four aspects to challenge those self-appointed writers, and pointed out that the modern poets’ mind should be free roaming like the fish in the water. They should get rid of the old stereotypes of poetry and create poems freely.  

Ezra Pound addresses the old-time question of happiness in privileged and underprivileged classes. The “generation of thoroughly smug” refers to middle and upper classes of society who, by conventional means, are uptight, dull, and “smug”, and in Pound's definition are “thoroughly uncomfortable”, with life. Pound parallels the “thoroughly smug” with the “fishermen”. The poem is about perseverance. “Fishermen” are poor, often uneducated, country folk. Pound parallels “fishermen” with struggling poets; both sects trying to survive by their individual means.

3.1.2 Image superposition

Image superposition is to superimpose images with the same meaning, and uses modify, qualifier, metaphor to constitute the relationship between images. Ezra Pound widely used this writing technique. The example is the poem “A Girl” which Pound wrote for his early lover:

The tree has entered my hands,

The sap has ascended my arms,

The tree has grown in my breast -

Downward,

The branches grow out of me, like arms.

Tree you are,

Moss you are,

You are violets with wind above them.

A child - so high - you are,

And all this is folly to the world.

                                          ------by Ezra Pound “A Girl”

In this poem, Pound first uses the image “tree” to superimpose and modify “I”, and then uses the image “moss” and “violet” to superposition and modify “tree”. It is clear that the image of the “tree” is a symbol of love and young girl. Pound first described the close relationship between “tree” and “I”. Then he added three images –”moss”, “violet” and “child” to praise the beauty of young girl. The girl is as young and beautiful as violet and moss. And she is also like green trees which full of life. All of these things moisten “my” growth of life, even though they are ungrounded yawp in most people’s eyes. In this superimposed image, we can find that the beauty of the young girl likes violet, and the vital force likes the tree and mo ss.

We can see that those words or images have similar meaning, and their meanings have connected relationship. It is clearly that Pound used modify, qualifier, metaphor to constitute the relationship between images. So this poem uses typical image superposition.

3.1.3 Image juxtaposition

 Image juxtaposition is quite similar to Image superposition, but actually they are different. Image juxtaposition is to appose two visible images together which from different time and space, to inspire and arouse the feelings of others. Hume said: “The imagery shows that the combination of the two visible images can be called a visual chord. Their combination gives people an image which is different from either of the two images.” The emotional feeling aroused by juxtaposition of different images has gone beyond the meanings of a particular image, but with an entirely new feel.

Pound said, “Image juxtaposition” can not allow any contact, whether it is an analogy or a synonym. The purpose of this technique is to “cut the lock of association of ideas”, so that the author can make the interaction relationship between images. The reader must take the initiative to use their imagination to explore the relationship between the two. Pound has always been emphasized on “Objective Present”. It is one of the effects of image juxtaposition, which means let the readers to understand the experience in poetry on their own, realize the “Similarity” between images, and get a sudden, new, near-epiphany of understanding.

Juxtaposition is like the Montage practice in the field of poetry. It is also the core writing technique used in Pound’s great work “The Cantos”.

Montage practice is a cinematic technique wildly used in modern film industry. It is a rapid succession of different images or shots in a movie. It composes pictures by juxtaposing or superimposing many pictures or designs. So we can regard it as the art or process of making such a single pictorial composition.

The Cantos by Ezra Pound is a long, incomplete poem in 120 sections, each of which is a canto. Most of it was written between 1915 and 1962, although much of the early work was abandoned and the early cantos, as finally published, date from 1922 onwards. It is a book-length work, widely considered to present formidable difficulties to the reader. Strong claims have been made for it as the most significant work of modernist poetry of the twentieth century. As in Pound's prose writing, the themes of economics, governance, and culture are integral to its content.

The most striking feature of the text, to a casual browser, is the inclusion of Chinese characters as well as quotations in European languages other than English. Here I cite a few lines of chapter forty-ninth of poem “Cantos” as follows:

Rain; empty river; a voyage,

Fire from frozen cloud, heavy rain in the twilight

Under the cabin roof was one lantern.

The reeds are heavy; bent;

and the bamboos speak as if weeping.

                              -----by Ezra Pound “Cantos”

In this poem, Pound used the melodic appearance of images to achieve an effect that common texts were not readily to gain. When we are reading these few lines, there will be subconscious images come into our mind, just as the words showed. The images change from “rain” to “empty river”, from “frozen cloud” to “heavy rain, from “the cabin roof” to “one lantern”. It is just like a rapid succession of different images or shots in a movie.

We can find that those words or images have different meaning, from different time and space, but they have connected relationship. It is clearly that Pound put those visible images together and achieved an admirable effect to inspire and arouse our feelings. This poem gets a responsive chord in the hearts of its readers.These melodic appearances of images are achieved by juxtaposing or superimposing different images. In other word, this effect is achieved by image juxtaposition or Montage practice.

3.2 Concise Language

Imagist poetry is famous for using concise language, without adjectives, qualifier, decorative “lace” and flaunting words. It writes short lines, with imagery. In the three principles of Imagism made by F. S. Flint, the second principle is “To use absolutely no word that did not contribute to the presentation.” In an essay “A Few Don’ts by An Imagist”, Ezra Pound wrote three “Don’ts” as the principle of image poetry. The first “Don’t” is “Use no superfluous word, no adjective, which does not reveal something.”

Pound strictly obeys these principles. Here we take the landmark work of Pound's Imagist Poetry “In a Station of the Metro” for example:

The apparition of these faces in the crowd;

Petals on a wet, black bough.

                             -----by Ezra Pound “In a Station of the Metro”

 This poem was first published in 1913 and is considered one of the leading poems of the Imagist tradition. Written in a Japanese haiku style, Pound’s process of deletion from thirty lines to only fourteen words typifies Imagism’s focus on economy of language, precision of imagery and experimenting with non-traditional verse forms. The poem is Pound’s written equivalent for the moment of revelation and intense emotion he felt at the Metro at La Concorde, Paris. Pound explains in his article value.

The poem is essentially a set of images that have unexpected likeness and convey the rare emotion that Pound was experiencing at that time. Arguably the heart of the poem is not the first line, nor the second, but the mental process that links the two together. “In a poem of this sort,” as Pound explained, “one is trying to record the precise instant when a thing outward and objective transforms itself, or darts into a thing inward and subjective.”[9]3 This darting takes place between the first and second lines. The pivotal semi-colon has stirred debate as to whether the first line is in fact subordinate to the second or both lines are of equal, independent importance.

Pound contrasts the factual, mundane image that he actually witnessed with a metaphor from nature and thus infuses this “apparition” with visual beauty. There is a quick transition from the statement of the first line to the second line’s vivid metaphor; this ‘super-position’ technique exemplifies the Japanese haiku style. The word “apparition” is considered crucial as it evokes a mystical and supernatural sense of imprecision which is then reinforced by the metaphor of the second line. The plosive word ‘Petals’ conjures ideas of delicate, feminine beauty which contrasts with the bleakness of the ‘wet, black bough’. What the poem signifies is questionable; many critics argue that it deliberately transcends traditional form and therefore its meaning is solely found in its technique as opposed to in its content. However when Pound had the inspiration to write this poem few of these considerations came into view. He simply wished to translate his perception of beauty in the midst of ugliness into a single, perfect image in written form.

3.3 Musical Rhythm

Ezra Pound has a strong musical rhythm in his works, which is mainly embodied in three aspects: firstly, he thinks poetry language should be musical and pays attention to the internal poetic rhythm; secondly, he successfully adopted the fugue melody of western music, and used it in his masterpiece Cantos; moreover, he uses the dapper image poems to load the richest content and emotion to reach the highest level of musical poetry -- quiet voice.

Rhythm is an important factor to form the musical aesthetics of poetry. It gives us pleasure and beauty, and it can unify the individual, coordinate difference, turn lethargy to concentrate. Therefore, the rhythm itself is very charming, and musical rhythm is usually considered to be the core of musical poetry. In the On imagism, Ezra Pound defined poetry that “poetry is the compounds or organization of musical words.”[10]6 In Pound’s view, the so-called music is just rhythm. A poem cannot be called as a poem if without rhythm. In the aspect of poetry, Pound has inherited the free verse of Whitman poems, and made a meaningful attempt. He found a new charming melody in the traditional pentameter poem, and combined the music and expressive force into free verse. The rhythm and sound changes with the emotion in poems, that is, to maintain the true feelings of the poems and gives its beautiful melody. When reading Pound's poetry, we will realize that the beauty of rhythm in his poetry not only exists in the rhythm itself, but more important is in the performance of content.

Pound also believes that poetry do not only need rhythm, but also include: (1) beautiful rhythm. A good poem has a residual sound in the listener's ear, which sounds like organ. (2) Rhythm should contain some surprising elements. That is to say the rhythm should be of innovation. (3) Rhythm should reflect a certain emotion; give reader a shock of soul.

In addition to the repeated experiments of the rhythm of poetry, Pound also innovated the structure of poetry. He changed the way of composing music into poetry skills, in order to further enhance the melody and artistic appeal of poetry. In the “Cantos”—the literary masterpiece which represent the highest achievements of Pound's poetry, Pound used “fugue” structure in the creation of many chapters. Fugue is a common music form in Western music, which includes “theme”, “response”, “counter-subject”, and with several “episodes”. Usually, fugue adopts “counterpoint” to arrange “theme& rdquo;, “response” and “counter-subject” into the music in turn, and achieve polyphonic structure. This structure can overcome the psychological feeling of dull monotonous.

4．Influence of Pound poetry

Ezra Pound is generally considered the poet who is most responsible for defining and promoting a modernist aesthetic in poetry. His own significant contributions to poetry begin with his declare of Imagism, a movement in poetry which derived its technique from classical Chinese and Japanese poetry-stressing clarity, precision, and economy of language, and foregoing traditional rhyme and meter in order to, in Pound's words, “compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in the sequence of the metronome.”

Pound appreciated Chinese poetry very much and learned the use of image from it. What’s more, he summarized the key techniques and formed his own imagism theory. His imagism theory, poetry writing skills and translation of Chinese poems not only influenced innumerable British and American writers, but also affected the development of Chinese modern literature.  

4.1 The impact on domestic literature

Ezra Pound’s achievements in poetry field or literature field were well recognized. Though he learned a lot of writing skills from Chinese poetry, he also had an important influence on the literature development in China, especially the development of image poetry. We can say the modern Chinese poetry is greatly influenced by Imagism.

Image is an important category with key significance in Chinese poem studying and also an important numeral factor in poetry creation. Poet’s creation inspiration and experience to the life are both condensed in image. Image is the special way to manifest itself for poetry to be distinguished from other literary styles. The ancient Chinese image poetry has a long history. It is featured by clarity, precision, economy of language and combination of images. The western image poem theory was partly derived from Chinese, but later it influenced modern Chinese Poetry.

The genesis stage of Chinese modern image poetry is in 1920s. The representative poets were Hu Shi, Wen Yiduo and Li Jinfa. Hu was well known as the primary advocate for the literary revolution of the era, a movement which aimed to replace scholarly classical Chinese in writing with the vernacular spoken language, and to cultivate and stimulate new forms of literature. “The English and American poetry of image group showed multi-aspects influence on Hu Shi’s poetry point and his vernacular and New Poetry Movement.”[11]119

The whole exploration of poetry image art in1920s, looking the image art of ancient poetry as the control of modern image construction, experiences a process of modern decay and birth of new poem image, that is being intertwined with image tradition of ancient poetry (new vernacular poem in the early period), breaking away from traditional image system (represented by Guo Moruo), close examination of returning to tradition (new metrical poem group represented by Wen Yiduo) and rebel against tradition (represented by Li Jinfa).

The development period of Chinese image poetry is between 1930s and 1940s. It was the historical evolution process of modern image art from genesis，development to maturity and its regularity and phased characteristics. During this period, most school’s image poetry held the point of view with the core of dimness, harmonious theory and artistic conception. The Beijing school’s image poetry theories were including agreement theory, art and temperament and interest theory, revealing and hidden theory, inspiration theory and image connecting theory. The July school’s image theory explaining the poetry point on the center of Ai Qing’s concrete and abstract sensualist, image imagination theory and image and graphic theory and Hu Feng’s experience image theory. The Nine Leaves school’s poetry study is expanded from such aspects as poem quality theory, rational theory, artistic conception, structuralism theory, sinking theory and condensing theory etc. And it represents the basic maturity of modern image poetry theory. The representative poets were Dai Wangshu, He Qifang, Bain Zhilin, Fei Min, Ai Qing.

Up to the present, there are many Chinese scholars studying Ezra Pound’s poetry. Some of them are from the view of the relationship between Ezra Pound and Chinese poetry. Some others research from the perspective of translation to examine the translation skills the translation of Chinese poetry. The most of them use the perspective of traditional rhetorical method, and study images of poetry from perspective of the arts means and effects of literature. The study includes the role of poetic imagery, rhetorical skills, rhetorical effect and its artistic features and so on.

4.2 The impact on foreign literature

American poet, critic, and translator Ezra Pound was an extremely important influence in the shaping of 20th-century poetry.  He was one of the most famous and controversial literary figures of the century. No other twentieth century literary figure engaged as much with China as Pound. T. S. Eliot described him as the “inventor of Chinese poetry”.

Though the movement of Imagism only lasted for a short period of time, it is the beginning of New Poetry Movement in the United States. Its experiment on using “image” and free verse poetry changed many American readers’ tastes, and affected the process of American modern poetry. Pound's modernist experiments of the 1910s and 1920s have served as a counterforce to the established traditions of the “American Sublime” and the Anglo-American formalism represented by T. S. Eliot and the New Criticism. Beach, Christopher wrote a complete book length critical study ABC of Influence: Ezra Pound and the Remaking of American Poetic Tradition. “ In this first full-length study of Pound's influence on American poetry after World War II, Beach argues that Pound's experimental mode created a new tradition of poetic writing in America. Often neglected by academic critics and excluded from the “canon” of American poetic writing, Charles Olson, Robert Duncan, and later members of this experimental tradition have maintained the sense of an American avant-garde in keeping with Pound's modernist experiments of the 1910s and 1920s.”[12]87

After the movement of Imagism, there is still a small number of poets, consciously or unconsciously adhered to some of the certain principles of Imagism, and expand the results of Imagism. William C. Williams’ performance is regarded as the most outstanding in this field. Under the guidance of Ezra Pound, he began his business on the road of studying Imagism. Then he combined the writing skills of Imagism with the subject matters and language style of the United States, and created a kind of “direct” Poetry. This kind of Poetry had a dramatic impact on the revolution of United States poetry during the 1950 to 1960.

T. S. Eliot and Irish writers W. B. Yeats were deepest influenced by Pound. T. S. Eliot was a poet, playwright and literary critic. He received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948. Among his most famous writings, the Waste Land has become a touchstone of modern literature, a poetic counterpart to a novel published in the same year, James Joyce's Ulysses. Pound made detailed editorial comments and significant cuts to the manuscript. W. B. Yeats was an Irish poet and dramatist and one of the foremost figures of 20th-century literature. Under Pound’s influence Yeats learned Pound's unauthorized alterations and got know of Chinese and Japanese poetry, which affected his later works.

5．Conclusion

The above discussion of Ezra Pound’s image poetry is by no means comprehensive but it can give us a clear point of view of Pound’s writing techniques and features. He successfully combined the features of Western poetry and Eastern poetry, and invited a new poetry theory. His way of combine images, use concise language and pay attention to rhythm are good skills which we can learn and use in poetry writing. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the language characteristics of Pound’s poetry and analysis his imagist poetry style, so as to provide some theoretical ideals from the view of reading, understanding and appreciate modern English poetry, thus making it easier for Chinese readers to appreciate English poetry.

 

Acknowledgements

My initial thanks to my supervisor Han Xiaoya, without her patient guidance and strict supervision, this paper would not have been written. Her suggestions help me a lot in the writing of this thesis. And her enlightening ideas will greatly influence studies in my academic life.

I am also very grateful to my roommates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their valuable materials and suggestions on my writing of this thesis. Their kindness cannot be overstated.

I am further indebted to other teachers who have taught me and helped me in the past four years

In addition, any errors and inadequacies in this thesis are my sole responsibility.

 

References

[1] PARINI, JAY, BRETT C. MILLIER. The Columbia History of American Poetry[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2005.

London: Longman, 1997.

[3] BELL, IAN F.A. Critic As scientist: The Modernist Poetic of Ezra Pound[M]. Methuen, London and New York, 1981

[4] AIMIN, CHENG. Reading American Literature，Nanjing, 1996

[5] CARPENTER, HUMPHERY. A Serious Character: The Life of Ezra Pound[M]. Houghton Miffiin Company, Boston, 1988

[6] Elder, Bruce. The Films of Stan Brakhage in the American Tradition of Ezra Pound, Gertrude Stein and Charles Olson[J]. Wilfrid Laurier University Pre ss, 1998. .

.Ed. Patrick McGuinness. New York: Routledge, 2003.

[8] EZRA POUND. Poems and Translations[M].Library of America/Literary Classics of the United States, Inc., 2003.

.in Ira B. Nadel (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Ezra Pound, 1999, Cambridge University Press

[10] 王貴明.中國(guó)古典詩(shī)歌美學(xué)與龐德現(xiàn)代主義詩(shī)學(xué)[J].北京理工大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào)(社會(huì)科學(xué)版)2004,(6).

篇6

二、英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)畢業(yè)論文的改革實(shí)踐

筆者所在學(xué)院明確地把培養(yǎng)應(yīng)用型創(chuàng)新型人才作為目標(biāo)，其人才培養(yǎng)模式注重實(shí)用和實(shí)踐，注重能力和專(zhuān)長(zhǎng)。莊智象在《關(guān)于國(guó)際化創(chuàng)新型外語(yǔ)人才培養(yǎng)的思考》［6］一文中指出:創(chuàng)新型外語(yǔ)人才應(yīng)具備“良好的語(yǔ)言基本功、極強(qiáng)的專(zhuān)業(yè)知識(shí)結(jié)構(gòu)、創(chuàng)新性的思維能力和分析解決問(wèn)題的實(shí)際能力”。正常情況下，英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)的畢業(yè)論文，既要考查學(xué)生對(duì)英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)基礎(chǔ)知識(shí)的掌握情況，也要考查其綜合應(yīng)用英語(yǔ)的能力。二者如何協(xié)調(diào)結(jié)合，是改進(jìn)畢業(yè)論文工作的一個(gè)突破口。工科院校本科生畢業(yè)前既要完成畢業(yè)論文，又要完成畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)。前者注重專(zhuān)業(yè)知識(shí)和學(xué)術(shù)性，后者檢驗(yàn)對(duì)知識(shí)的實(shí)踐應(yīng)用能力，即動(dòng)手能力。這種強(qiáng)調(diào)理論與實(shí)踐相結(jié)合的理念對(duì)英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)畢業(yè)論文工作有很好的啟示:是否也可以將英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)的畢業(yè)論文由單一的論文模式改為一種集社會(huì)實(shí)踐和論文于一體的畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)模式?本校英語(yǔ)系經(jīng)過(guò)多方調(diào)研和考慮，最終提出從英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)畢業(yè)論文形式入手進(jìn)行改革，力求探索一種能有效地防止抄襲，且適應(yīng)應(yīng)用型創(chuàng)新型英語(yǔ)人才培養(yǎng)目標(biāo)的畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)模式，具體情況如下:1．改傳統(tǒng)的畢業(yè)論文為畢業(yè)作品制作長(zhǎng)期以來(lái)，高校英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)本科畢業(yè)論文(設(shè)計(jì))都是沿用《高等學(xué)校英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)大綱》的要求:“畢業(yè)論文一般用英語(yǔ)撰寫(xiě)，長(zhǎng)度為3000～5000個(gè)單詞，要求文字通順、思路清晰、內(nèi)容充實(shí)，有一定的獨(dú)立見(jiàn)解。”［7］若仔細(xì)推敲這句話，“一般”二字暗示著高校也可根據(jù)實(shí)際情況進(jìn)行其他形式的調(diào)整。為緩解日益嚴(yán)重的抄襲現(xiàn)象，從2012屆學(xué)生開(kāi)始，本系改革傳統(tǒng)的畢業(yè)論文為畢業(yè)作品制作，具體指學(xué)生運(yùn)用自己所學(xué)的英語(yǔ)知識(shí)制作出有英語(yǔ)配音及中英文字幕的視頻節(jié)目。不同的學(xué)生按照自己的興趣選擇不同的主題，比如人文景觀、產(chǎn)品推介、跨文化交際等。除了制作15～30分鐘的專(zhuān)題視頻外，學(xué)生還需完成一份不少于3000字的中文稿。學(xué)生將此文稿譯為質(zhì)量較高的英語(yǔ)，用于為視頻英文配音，同時(shí)視頻還配以中英文字幕。幾名學(xué)生可在拍攝、配音和剪輯上互相協(xié)助，但每個(gè)學(xué)生最終要提交一個(gè)獨(dú)立的作品和配套的中英文文稿。為了使學(xué)生掌握一定的視頻拍攝及制作的基本技能和方法，本系還特別邀請(qǐng)了電視臺(tái)的相關(guān)專(zhuān)家對(duì)學(xué)生進(jìn)行32學(xué)時(shí)的培訓(xùn)，講授視頻的拍攝技巧和后期如何利用專(zhuān)業(yè)的EDIUS軟件進(jìn)行視頻編輯及字幕制作。培訓(xùn)擴(kuò)充了學(xué)生英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)外的傳媒知識(shí)，使學(xué)生獲益匪淺。2．將畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)工作提前到學(xué)生就業(yè)前以往畢業(yè)論文從第七學(xué)期開(kāi)始進(jìn)行，第八學(xué)期進(jìn)入到論文撰寫(xiě)最緊張的階段。這時(shí)學(xué)生基本步入社會(huì)，或就業(yè)實(shí)習(xí)，或四處求職，無(wú)法集中精力進(jìn)行寫(xiě)作。學(xué)生離開(kāi)校園導(dǎo)致信息資料缺乏，引發(fā)網(wǎng)絡(luò)抄襲，與指導(dǎo)老師的溝通也受到影響。為了改善這種狀態(tài)，本系要求2012屆的畢業(yè)生在第六學(xué)期即開(kāi)始畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)的前期工作，包括畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)選題、開(kāi)題報(bào)告撰寫(xiě)與修改以及開(kāi)題報(bào)告的答辯。從暑假至第七學(xué)期中旬，學(xué)生完成畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)文字稿初稿，在教師指導(dǎo)下不斷修改并最終形成定稿，繼而完成拍攝工作及后期制作。第七學(xué)期中下旬完成畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)答辯，學(xué)生修改后提交最終版作品。將畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)提前，避免了學(xué)生畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)時(shí)段與找工季的沖突，學(xué)生有更充分的時(shí)間尋找自己最感興趣的題目，將理論學(xué)習(xí)與實(shí)踐操作相結(jié)合。這樣不僅提高了畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)質(zhì)量，還能增強(qiáng)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)的積極性，同時(shí)也便于教師在校內(nèi)對(duì)學(xué)生進(jìn)行面對(duì)面的指導(dǎo)。3．改革為畢業(yè)作品制作的優(yōu)勢(shì)其一，視頻制作屬于原創(chuàng)性的作品，學(xué)生自行選擇感興趣的題目，親自為視頻配音并出鏡，有效地制止了抄襲現(xiàn)象的發(fā)生，且學(xué)生選題不再狹窄單一，時(shí)效性大大增強(qiáng)。很明顯，改革后學(xué)生畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)的選題比改革前更豐富更新穎。其二，相比以往多屆學(xué)生反復(fù)寫(xiě)過(guò)的沒(méi)有新意的論文來(lái)說(shuō)，新形式的畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)擁有更多的社會(huì)文化價(jià)值和實(shí)用價(jià)值。由于學(xué)生大都來(lái)自廣東，其畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)多圍繞廣東本土的人文景觀、企業(yè)及產(chǎn)品、文化傳統(tǒng)等進(jìn)行。如“嶺南水鄉(xiāng)———小洲村”、“主題公園的營(yíng)銷(xiāo)策略———?dú)g樂(lè)谷成功之道”、“潮汕成人禮———出花園”、“西關(guān)文化的傳承和保護(hù)———西關(guān)大屋的歷史變遷”等許多作品富有濃郁的地方特色。學(xué)生亦可選取自己有求職意向的行業(yè)作為畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)的主題。最終每個(gè)畢業(yè)作品被單獨(dú)刻錄在光盤(pán)上，可作為學(xué)生求職簡(jiǎn)歷的一部分，反映學(xué)生的實(shí)踐能力，在嚴(yán)峻的就業(yè)形勢(shì)下為成功應(yīng)聘增添籌碼。其三，學(xué)生開(kāi)動(dòng)腦筋自編自導(dǎo)視頻作品，很大程度上培養(yǎng)了自己的創(chuàng)新意識(shí)、創(chuàng)新思維和創(chuàng)新精神。如“千年葵藝在新會(huì)”的制作者巧妙地把一位老奶奶搖著葵扇給孫女講故事的場(chǎng)景引入到視頻的主題———介紹廣東新會(huì)的“葵藝”發(fā)展史。其四，將中文稿翻譯成英文，在老師指導(dǎo)下不斷修改至最佳的過(guò)程，使學(xué)生的寫(xiě)作翻譯技能和語(yǔ)法、詞匯等英文基本功有了顯著的提升。其五，在為視頻英文配音的過(guò)程中，學(xué)生反復(fù)練習(xí)英文稿的朗讀，并在教師幫助下糾正錯(cuò)誤發(fā)音，改善了語(yǔ)音語(yǔ)調(diào)，提高了口頭表達(dá)能力。其六，通過(guò)在網(wǎng)上搜索畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)視頻的相關(guān)素材，鍛煉了學(xué)生搜集、篩選和運(yùn)用資料的能力。其七，視頻拍攝和編輯軟件的學(xué)習(xí)以及后期的字幕制作等實(shí)踐大大提高了學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)能力和動(dòng)手能力。其八，拍攝前與公司廠家或景區(qū)等多方聯(lián)系，鍛煉了學(xué)生的社會(huì)交往溝通能力。視頻由幾名同學(xué)或親友相互配合共同完成，培養(yǎng)了學(xué)生的團(tuán)隊(duì)合作能力。4．鼓勵(lì)部分有需要的學(xué)生繼續(xù)撰寫(xiě)畢業(yè)論文少數(shù)打算讀研或出國(guó)深造的學(xué)生需要通過(guò)做畢業(yè)論文為今后的學(xué)習(xí)打下良好的學(xué)術(shù)基礎(chǔ)，為此，改革不能搞“一刀切”，應(yīng)鼓勵(lì)部分學(xué)生撰寫(xiě)論文并配備優(yōu)秀教師對(duì)其指導(dǎo)。

篇7

開(kāi)題報(bào)告是作者將自己初步選定的題目之內(nèi)容、思想等，以書(shū)面形式向畢業(yè)論文答辯委員會(huì)的導(dǎo)師和聽(tīng)眾作一書(shū)面匯報(bào)和簡(jiǎn)要說(shuō)明。

寫(xiě)開(kāi)題報(bào)告目的：一是作者能將所選課題的內(nèi)容框架、研究現(xiàn)狀、選題意義、重難點(diǎn)和創(chuàng)新點(diǎn)、文化結(jié)構(gòu)、主要引征材料及參考書(shū)目作一總體思路的勾劃，作者對(duì)該選題的前因后果，來(lái)龍去脈進(jìn)行有序的組合清理，為撰寫(xiě)畢業(yè)論文作好充分準(zhǔn)備。二是作者能廣泛聽(tīng)取他人的寶貴意見(jiàn)，并在此基礎(chǔ)上重新理順論文思路，使其結(jié)構(gòu)更趨完整，內(nèi)容更趨翔實(shí)。

開(kāi)題報(bào)告的基本組成部分

1、畢業(yè)論文題目

論文題目用中英文撰寫(xiě)，漢語(yǔ)在前，英語(yǔ)在后。目的是限定畢業(yè)論文的大致范圍和方向，即論題。應(yīng)力求簡(jiǎn)明扼要，引人注目。一般不超過(guò)15—20字。必要時(shí)可使用副標(biāo)題。

2、本選題的研究目的

以中學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)法方向?yàn)槔?，則須說(shuō)明要解決英語(yǔ)教與學(xué)，理論與實(shí)踐等方面的哪些問(wèn)題，這些問(wèn)題應(yīng)是在教學(xué)實(shí)踐中比較突出又難以解決的問(wèn)題;或是前人從未解決的，并且能填補(bǔ)某一領(lǐng)域的空白的問(wèn)題。

3、本選題在國(guó)內(nèi)外同行業(yè)中的研究現(xiàn)狀

國(guó)內(nèi)外學(xué)者對(duì)該選題曾作過(guò)哪些方面的相關(guān)研究，本課題在國(guó)內(nèi)外研究中處于何等地位?是屬于未開(kāi)拓的領(lǐng)域，還是在前人已經(jīng)研究過(guò)的基礎(chǔ)上作深層次的研究?國(guó)內(nèi)外有哪些論文、論著涉及到本選題的內(nèi)容?

4、研究本選題的動(dòng)機(jī)及意義

提出本選題的根據(jù)是什么?為什么提出這個(gè)選題?本選題的研究有什么意義?從理論的角度看，本選題有哪些方面的突破，其價(jià)值取向是什么?本選題與相關(guān)領(lǐng)域之間的關(guān)系如何?對(duì)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)會(huì)起什么作用?從實(shí)踐的角度看，本選題是否有助于英語(yǔ)教師和學(xué)生把握教與學(xué)的動(dòng)向，使人們?cè)谟⒄Z(yǔ)教與學(xué)的過(guò)程中少走彎路，是否有利于提高英語(yǔ)教學(xué)質(zhì)量?

5、本選題研究的主要觀點(diǎn)、內(nèi)容、重點(diǎn)和難點(diǎn)

本選題研究有哪幾個(gè)重要觀點(diǎn)，其特點(diǎn)是什么?研究的重點(diǎn)在哪幾個(gè)方面?研究的難點(diǎn)在何處?怎樣從理論與實(shí)踐出發(fā)，對(duì)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)進(jìn)行更深入的理論探討?如何結(jié)合英語(yǔ)教學(xué)實(shí)際對(duì)改進(jìn)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)作對(duì)策思考?本選題有哪幾個(gè)新觀點(diǎn)?是否填補(bǔ)了國(guó)內(nèi)外同行業(yè)研究中的空白?

6、本選題的撰寫(xiě)框架

框架可用提綱形式表述，一般構(gòu)成如下：

引言：提出問(wèn)題、擺明觀點(diǎn)。

論點(diǎn)：分析問(wèn)題與闡明自己的觀點(diǎn)。大致包括：?jiǎn)栴}的原因及危害性;解決問(wèn)題的重要性和必要性;從理論上來(lái)論證問(wèn)題的解決方法，并聯(lián)系教學(xué)實(shí)際闡述解決問(wèn)題的策略與做法。另外，利用實(shí)際數(shù)據(jù)作為論據(jù)，證明方法的有效性。

結(jié)論：通過(guò)對(duì)問(wèn)題的分析論證，其結(jié)果如何?對(duì)人們?cè)谟⒄Z(yǔ)教與學(xué)中有何指導(dǎo)意義?有哪些方面需要繼續(xù)研究的?它還有什么不足之處?

參考書(shū)目：參考書(shū)目一般是英文參考書(shū)在前，中文參考書(shū)在后，以字母拼音順序排列。

7、研究基礎(chǔ)

作者在選擇該題之前作過(guò)哪些方面的學(xué)習(xí)、研究或?qū)戇^(guò)什么文章?說(shuō)明能如期完成畢業(yè)論文撰寫(xiě)的理由。

8、研究方法

常見(jiàn)的研究方法包括：觀察、調(diào)查、描述、實(shí)驗(yàn)、實(shí)證、文獻(xiàn)、個(gè)案研究、比較研究、經(jīng)驗(yàn)總結(jié)、實(shí)踐反思、測(cè)量、量化、行動(dòng)研究、表列、圖示、內(nèi)容分析等方法。例如：實(shí)驗(yàn)的方法就是對(duì)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)班級(jí)進(jìn)行實(shí)驗(yàn)對(duì)比;調(diào)查的方法就是通過(guò)調(diào)查表、詢問(wèn)、問(wèn)答等形式尋找解決問(wèn)題的方法。

一個(gè)課題根據(jù)具體情況可能需要一種或多種研究方法。

9、撰寫(xiě)步驟及階段任務(wù)

包括：選題及開(kāi)題報(bào)告初稿、正式開(kāi)題報(bào)告及提綱、完成初稿、二稿、三稿、定稿等、何時(shí)論文答辯等。

開(kāi)題報(bào)告中文范例

標(biāo)題： 英語(yǔ)隱喻漢譯

(On Translating English Metaphors into Chinese)

1) 本選題國(guó)內(nèi)外研究現(xiàn)狀

對(duì)隱喻的研究在國(guó)外已形成較為完整的體系，其中以Lakoff & Johnson (1987)的研究最具有代表性，而對(duì)于其漢譯的研究卻鳳毛麟角。國(guó)內(nèi)對(duì)于隱喻的研究主要受Lakoff & Johnson理論的影響，其中以胡壯麟、朱永生為主要代表。在隱喻翻譯的研究方面，李國(guó)南(1990)，胡文仲(1994)對(duì)于英漢成語(yǔ)或諺語(yǔ)中的習(xí)用性比喻的喻體進(jìn)行過(guò)比較，并探討了其翻譯的途經(jīng)。在近期出版的刊物中有對(duì)隊(duì)喻翻譯研究方面的文章，其中以徐莉娜的《隱喻的翻譯》為主要代表。但其研究的范圍也只是局限于文學(xué)、修辭用語(yǔ)的隱喻翻譯。

2)本選題的意義、重點(diǎn)、難點(diǎn)及創(chuàng)新點(diǎn)

意義：本選題突破了歷來(lái)將隱喻的漢譯局限在詩(shī)學(xué)、修辭學(xué)、文學(xué)等范疇。由于“翻譯是跨語(yǔ)言、跨文化的交際活動(dòng)”(陳宏薇：1996)，翻譯對(duì)各民族之間文化的傳播起著非常重要貢獻(xiàn)的作用。我們對(duì)日常用語(yǔ)中隱喻的漢譯研究應(yīng)與英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言文化背景的研究結(jié)合起來(lái)。

重點(diǎn)：本選題重在研究隱喻在英語(yǔ)日常用語(yǔ)中存在的普遍性、可譯性及其翻譯的方法。

難點(diǎn)：怎樣從文化交際的角度對(duì)日常用語(yǔ)中的隱喻的漢譯進(jìn)行深入的理論探討。

創(chuàng)新點(diǎn)：研究英語(yǔ)日常用語(yǔ)中的隱喻的漢譯理論及其方法。

3)論文的結(jié)構(gòu)及簡(jiǎn)要說(shuō)明

1. 引言

2. 英語(yǔ)日常用語(yǔ)中隱喻存在的普遍性

2.1 隱喻的定義

2.2 關(guān)于隱喻研究的常用書(shū)語(yǔ)

2.3 英語(yǔ)日常用語(yǔ)中的隱喻

3. 英語(yǔ)日常用語(yǔ)中隱喻的特點(diǎn)

3.1 日常用語(yǔ)中隱喻的分類(lèi)

3.1.1 習(xí)用語(yǔ)

3.1.2 新生隱喻

3.2 英語(yǔ)隱喻與漢語(yǔ)隱喻

3.3 英語(yǔ)日常用語(yǔ)中隱喻的可譯性

4. 英語(yǔ)日常用語(yǔ)中的隱譯漢譯

4.1 翻譯的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)

4.2 日常用語(yǔ)中隱喻漢譯的難點(diǎn)

4.3 日常用語(yǔ)中隱語(yǔ)漢譯的過(guò)程

4.4 日常用語(yǔ)中隱喻漢譯的基本方法及原則

5. 日常用語(yǔ)中隱喻漢譯的方法與技巧

5.1 直譯法

5.2 意譯法

5.3 轉(zhuǎn)譯法

5.4 直譯和意譯結(jié)合法

4) 參考書(shū)目

Brodkey, Linda. Review: The Language in Metaphors. ( College English Jan, v50 pp 89-94), 1988.

Jin Di & Eugene, A. Nida. On Translation. Beijing: China Translation Publishing Company, 1984.

Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. Metaphors We Live by Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1987.

Nida, Eugene A. & William, Reyburn. Meaning Across Cultures, Maryknoll of N.Y. Orbis Book, 1981.

…

陳宏薇 《新實(shí)用漢譯英教程》，武漢：湖北教育出版社，1996。

陳文伯 《英語(yǔ)成語(yǔ)和漢語(yǔ)成語(yǔ)》，北京：外語(yǔ)教學(xué)與研究出版社，1980。

鄧炎昌、劉潤(rùn)清《語(yǔ)言與文化》，北京：外語(yǔ)教學(xué)與研究出版社，1989。

張培基等《英漢翻譯教程》，上海：上海外語(yǔ)教育出版社，1983。

篇8

1、具有獨(dú)立性和自含性 

對(duì)于一些英文讀者來(lái)說(shuō)，英文摘要是他們唯一的信息源，所以英文摘要一定要強(qiáng)調(diào)完整性，也就是說(shuō)它所提供的信息必須是完整的。 

2、具有定量分析 

撰寫(xiě)英文摘要的過(guò)程中應(yīng)該注意避免籠統(tǒng)的、空洞的闡述，盡量用具體的語(yǔ)言和清晰地思路來(lái)論述，這樣能給讀者一個(gè)全面的信息呈現(xiàn)。 

3、具有創(chuàng)新性 

由于東西方文化差異，西方學(xué)者在閱讀論文時(shí)會(huì)注重創(chuàng)新之處，所以中英文摘要不必強(qiáng)求一致，英文摘要需要有自己的特點(diǎn)和風(fēng)格。 

國(guó)際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)規(guī)定中“摘要”一詞定義為原文內(nèi)容準(zhǔn)確、扼要的表達(dá)，而不加以解釋和評(píng)論。各個(gè)高校對(duì)其也都有自己的相關(guān)規(guī)定，如新疆農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué)，一般要求英文摘要在200-250字符，單詞語(yǔ)法正確，語(yǔ)言流暢、精煉。內(nèi)容包括目的、方法、結(jié)果、結(jié)論等4個(gè)方面，著重反映論文中的新內(nèi)容、新見(jiàn)解，但不得加入評(píng)論。 

二、非英專(zhuān)本科畢業(yè)論文中文摘要英譯中存在的問(wèn)題 

1、研究過(guò)程簡(jiǎn)述 

為了了解本校非英專(zhuān)本科畢業(yè)論文英文摘要所存在的問(wèn)題，筆者進(jìn)行了兩方面的研究。筆者對(duì)土管專(zhuān)業(yè)的62份問(wèn)卷結(jié)果進(jìn)行了數(shù)據(jù)分析，發(fā)現(xiàn)77%的非英專(zhuān)學(xué)生對(duì)英文摘要有強(qiáng)烈的需求；收集了土管專(zhuān)業(yè)的57份畢業(yè)論文英文摘要，進(jìn)行詳細(xì)分析、研究，發(fā)現(xiàn)70%的學(xué)生借助了網(wǎng)上一些軟件翻譯，其中有25%的人對(duì)譯文進(jìn)行了修改，僅有12%的學(xué)生基本了達(dá)到英文摘要的要求。 

2、英文摘要存在的問(wèn)題的分析 

1）文章題目的翻譯。中國(guó)學(xué)生受到漢語(yǔ)思維習(xí)慣的影響，在中文題目中會(huì)用到“研究”、“初探”等詞，但是在撰寫(xiě)英文摘要中，這些詞就可以不用譯出。 

例如：四平市耕地保護(hù)的問(wèn)題及對(duì)策分析 

原譯：Analysis of Problem and Countermeasures of Farmland Protection in Si Ping City 

改譯：Problem and Countermeasures of Farmland Protection in Si Ping City 

2）標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號(hào)錯(cuò)誤。學(xué)生常犯的錯(cuò)誤：并列成分用分號(hào)隔開(kāi)；書(shū)名號(hào)沒(méi)有用斜體；中英文省略號(hào)的區(qū)別。 

例如：農(nóng)戶耕地流轉(zhuǎn)行為受農(nóng)戶文化程度、年齡、農(nóng)戶家庭勞動(dòng)力資源狀況影響。 

譯文：... is influenced by farmers’ degree of education，age，labor resource status. 

3）用詞不當(dāng)。詞性和近義詞區(qū)別分辨不清常會(huì)導(dǎo)致用詞不當(dāng)?shù)膯?wèn)題。 

例如：但是由此產(chǎn)生的人地矛盾問(wèn)題卻日趨尖銳 

原譯；but the resulting contradiction between people and land ... 

筆者認(rèn)為“矛盾”一詞，根據(jù)詞義和用途，conflict更為貼切。 

改譯：but the resulting conflict between people and land... 

4）搭配不當(dāng)。英語(yǔ)單詞的搭配紛亂復(fù)雜，許多學(xué)生的語(yǔ)法基礎(chǔ)薄弱，經(jīng)常會(huì)用錯(cuò)搭配導(dǎo)致不規(guī)范的表達(dá)。 

例如：In Urumqi as an example ... 

改譯：Taking Urumqi as an example... 

5）中式翻譯 

做翻譯時(shí)，一個(gè)普遍問(wèn)題就是中式思維翻譯。如果只顧字面對(duì)應(yīng)，不考慮文化差異，可能會(huì)造成簡(jiǎn)單句泛濫，句子銜接性差。 

例如：大量的農(nóng)業(yè)用地轉(zhuǎn)為城市用地，給國(guó)家糧食安全問(wèn)題和生態(tài)環(huán)境的保護(hù)造成了極大的壓力。 

原譯：A great deal transformation of agricultural land into urban land， to the national food security problems and the protection of the ecological environment cause great pressure. 

原譯文完全是根據(jù)中文逐字逐句翻譯的，且原文中的“問(wèn)題”可不用譯出。 

改譯：A great deal transformation ...brings great pressure to the national food security... 

三、改進(jìn)英文摘要質(zhì)量的對(duì)策 

英文摘要中存在的問(wèn)題還有很多，以上幾條只是筆者在實(shí)踐過(guò)程中常見(jiàn)問(wèn)題的簡(jiǎn)單總結(jié)。想要提高摘要質(zhì)量，筆者認(rèn)為需要從以下兩個(gè)方面做出努力： 

正確認(rèn)識(shí)英文摘要的意義，了解英文摘要的寫(xiě)作特點(diǎn)和規(guī)范。撰寫(xiě)英文摘要時(shí)，先用中文完成結(jié)構(gòu)完整、信息全面的摘要，再按照英文思維將其翻譯下來(lái)。 

掌握英文摘要的翻譯技巧，加強(qiáng)自身翻譯能力。多注重英文摘要的寫(xiě)作規(guī)范和行文特點(diǎn)，如用詞、句法、時(shí)態(tài)、語(yǔ)態(tài)等。多積累英文摘要常用詞、句型，多閱讀英文文獻(xiàn)資料。（作者單位：新疆農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué)外國(guó)語(yǔ)學(xué)院） 

作者簡(jiǎn)介：汪南（1994～），新疆農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué)外國(guó)語(yǔ)學(xué)院英語(yǔ)134班學(xué)生。 

參考文獻(xiàn) 

篇9

    1、培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的英語(yǔ)閱讀、寫(xiě)作能力及運(yùn)用商務(wù)知識(shí)分析問(wèn)題和解決問(wèn)題的能力,達(dá)到學(xué)以致用的目的。

    2、檢查學(xué)生對(duì)所學(xué)專(zhuān)業(yè)理論知識(shí)和基本技能的掌握程度,并將論文成績(jī)作為學(xué)生能否畢業(yè)的主要依據(jù)之一。

    3、訓(xùn)練學(xué)生搜集運(yùn)用資料的技能,同時(shí)培養(yǎng)學(xué)生理論聯(lián)系實(shí)際,增強(qiáng)獨(dú)立思考問(wèn)題和解決問(wèn)題的能力。

    二、 論文寫(xiě)作要求:

    1、以英文/漢語(yǔ)完成論文寫(xiě)作。

    2、字?jǐn)?shù)要求不低于3000個(gè)單詞或字, 統(tǒng)一采用A4(210x297mm)頁(yè)面復(fù)印紙單面打印.其中上邊距2.8cm,下面距2.5cm,左邊距2.5cm,右邊距2.5cm,頁(yè)眉1.6cm頁(yè)腳1.5cm裝訂線0.5cm.字間距為標(biāo)準(zhǔn),行間距為1.25倍行距.頁(yè)眉內(nèi)統(tǒng)一為:用5號(hào)宋體

    3、論文的內(nèi)容要與本專(zhuān)業(yè)所要求的知識(shí)和技能相結(jié)合,要求論述者閱讀一定量的英文和中文資料,能夠?qū)λ械馁Y料進(jìn)行合理刪減、組織和編輯,掌握論文撰寫(xiě)的結(jié)構(gòu)與布局。要求語(yǔ)言流暢,層次清晰,論點(diǎn)明確,論據(jù)充分。具有以下特性:

    1) 科學(xué)性:觀點(diǎn)正確,論據(jù)充分可靠,結(jié)構(gòu)合理,能反映出學(xué)生對(duì)本學(xué)科知識(shí)系統(tǒng)掌握的程度及其某一問(wèn)題有較深理解很認(rèn)識(shí)

    2) 實(shí)用性:選題應(yīng)該具有現(xiàn)實(shí)意義和學(xué)術(shù)價(jià)值,應(yīng)該體現(xiàn)出分析問(wèn)題解決問(wèn)題的能力水平

    3) 邏輯性:論證應(yīng)該有力,層次應(yīng)該分明,邏輯應(yīng)該嚴(yán)密,結(jié)構(gòu)應(yīng)該完整合理

    4) 技術(shù)性:應(yīng)該具有收集整理運(yùn)用材料的能力,語(yǔ)言表達(dá)應(yīng)該清晰準(zhǔn)確,格式應(yīng)該規(guī)范

    4、寫(xiě)作時(shí)間安排:

    1月14日:學(xué)生與導(dǎo)師見(jiàn)面選題和開(kāi)題

    1月15日-3月25日學(xué)生寫(xiě)作,提交提綱,初稿,導(dǎo)師修改并將完成情況向系里匯報(bào)

    3月31號(hào)前根據(jù)導(dǎo)師的修改意見(jiàn)完成第二稿交導(dǎo)師修改

    4月7號(hào)前完成定稿并按照要求打印裝訂成冊(cè).打印3份,交系里2份

    4月8號(hào)-4月13號(hào)準(zhǔn)備答辯,原則上采用英語(yǔ)答辯

    2007年4月14號(hào)論文答辯,原則上采用英語(yǔ)答辯

    5:論文成績(jī)?cè)u(píng)定:采用5級(jí)記分制,及優(yōu)秀,良好,中等,及格和不及格五等.其中優(yōu)秀沒(méi),良好等次的人數(shù)分別按不高于15%,20%的比例評(píng)定.終結(jié)成績(jī)必須經(jīng)指導(dǎo)老師學(xué)院畢業(yè)論文指導(dǎo)小組認(rèn)定.

    6:特別說(shuō)明:

    畢業(yè)論文寫(xiě)作是嚴(yán)肅的事情.嚴(yán)禁抄襲剽竊他人論文.一經(jīng)發(fā)現(xiàn)此次論文成績(jī)判為0分.

    三、 論文選題方向:

    1、商務(wù)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)改革的方向,途徑,課程設(shè)置等

    2、商務(wù)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)在新形勢(shì)下的影響和意義;

    3、我國(guó)貿(mào)易的現(xiàn)狀及其發(fā)展方向

    4、商務(wù)英文翻譯技巧;

    5、江西招商引資探討及其對(duì)策

    6.WTO保護(hù)期過(guò)后對(duì)我國(guó)的影響;

    四、 論文設(shè)計(jì)與擬定的程序:1、指導(dǎo)教師的幫助下,根據(jù)本指導(dǎo)書(shū)提供的選題范圍,從中選擇論文方向,確定題目。(注:選擇其他的題目,需與指導(dǎo)教師商議確定)

    2、 搜尋與本人論文題目相關(guān)的資料,文獻(xiàn),形成論文大綱,注意論文結(jié)構(gòu)安排的合理性。

    3、 論文結(jié)構(gòu):包括題目,中英文摘要和關(guān)鍵詞,目錄和正文. 詳見(jiàn)后面附件

    附件1:

    外語(yǔ)系英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)(高職)畢業(yè)論文選題(商英專(zhuān)業(yè))

    1. 《商務(wù)英語(yǔ)課程設(shè)置的探討》

    2. 《跨文化因素對(duì)英漢翻譯的影響》

    3. 《商務(wù)英語(yǔ)的特點(diǎn)及翻譯技巧》

    4. 《商務(wù)英語(yǔ)函電在對(duì)外貿(mào)易中的作用》

    5. 《單證員在國(guó)際貿(mào)易中的地位》

    6. 《商務(wù)英語(yǔ)函電翻譯技巧》

    7. 《商務(wù)談判中英語(yǔ)的重要性》

    8. 《淺談出口結(jié)匯風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的防范》

    9. 《中國(guó)退稅制度的改革及其影響》

    10. 《商標(biāo)名稱(chēng)的翻譯與策略》

    11. 《外貿(mào)企業(yè)信用風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理與控制》

    12. 《2007年外資銀行在我國(guó)本土注冊(cè)探討》

    13. 《我國(guó)利用國(guó)際貸款/國(guó)際援助現(xiàn)狀分析》

    14. 《WTO與我國(guó)反傾銷(xiāo)探討》

    15. 《我國(guó)對(duì)外直接投資之現(xiàn)狀》

    16. 《內(nèi)陸地區(qū)對(duì)外貿(mào)易發(fā)展策略研究》

    17. 《中印兩國(guó)兩國(guó)對(duì)外貿(mào)易戰(zhàn)略分析》

    18. 《人民幣升值對(duì)我國(guó)出口貿(mào)易的影響》

    19. 《淺談商務(wù)英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作時(shí)避免修飾語(yǔ)錯(cuò)位的方法》

    20. 《商務(wù)函電翻譯的用詞技巧》

    21. 《外商直接在華投資探討》

    22. 《社會(huì)文化遷移對(duì)中國(guó)式英語(yǔ)的影響》

    23. 《我國(guó)外貿(mào)出口品牌戰(zhàn)略的實(shí)施與研究》

    24. 《商務(wù)英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)口語(yǔ)課程教學(xué)探討》

    25. 《入世對(duì)我國(guó)農(nóng)產(chǎn)品貿(mào)易的影響與對(duì)策研究》

    26. 《應(yīng)對(duì)經(jīng)濟(jì)全球化,加快我國(guó)企業(yè)跨國(guó)經(jīng)營(yíng)》

    27. 《英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作中常見(jiàn)中式英語(yǔ)分析》

    28. 《入世商務(wù)英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作的研究》

    29. 《制單工作在國(guó)際結(jié)算中的地位》

    30. 《關(guān)稅壁壘與非關(guān)稅壁壘探討》

    31. 《淺談實(shí)質(zhì)利益談判法》

    32. 《國(guó)際電子商務(wù)發(fā)展面臨的新問(wèn)題》

    33. 《商務(wù)英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作中的錯(cuò)誤與商務(wù)英語(yǔ)寫(xiě)作教學(xué)之間的關(guān)系》

    34. 《清算所在期貨市場(chǎng)上的地位》

    35. 《跨國(guó)公司在華擴(kuò)張模式透析》

    36. 《漢譯英中遇到新詞語(yǔ)的譯法問(wèn)題》

    37. 英漢互譯中詞義的不對(duì)應(yīng)(文化意義、風(fēng)格意義、修辭意義等)

    38. 我國(guó)市場(chǎng)經(jīng)濟(jì)國(guó)家地位與反傾銷(xiāo)

    39. 如何防范信用證詐騙

    40. 我國(guó)中小企業(yè)開(kāi)拓國(guó)際市場(chǎng)之探討

    41. "10+1"自由貿(mào)易區(qū)未來(lái)前景展望

    42. 漢語(yǔ)中新詞匯的翻譯技巧

    43. 商務(wù)英語(yǔ)的特征與翻譯

    44. 珠江三角洲外貿(mào)現(xiàn)狀及存在的問(wèn)題

    45. 南昌現(xiàn)利用外資縱談

    46. 廣州/深圳等地區(qū)三資企業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)分析

    47. 淺談廣州等地區(qū)外貿(mào)企業(yè)的困境與出路

    48. 淺談廣州等地區(qū)出口產(chǎn)品結(jié)構(gòu)的市場(chǎng)分布

    49. 商務(wù)英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)畢業(yè)生就業(yè)崗位之探討

    50. 單證員跟單員等資格證書(shū)現(xiàn)狀思考

    51. 禮儀在商務(wù)談判中的作用

    52. 跨國(guó)公司的本土化經(jīng)營(yíng)戰(zhàn)略及其實(shí)施

    53. 中國(guó)在亞洲區(qū)域合作中的地位和作用

    54. 延長(zhǎng)我國(guó)加工貿(mào)易國(guó)內(nèi)價(jià)值鏈問(wèn)題探析

    55. 中國(guó)貿(mào)易的現(xiàn)狀和前景

    56. 我國(guó)西部地區(qū)引進(jìn)外資問(wèn)題研究

    57. 人民幣業(yè)務(wù)對(duì)外開(kāi)放之探討

    58. 淺談涉外合同英語(yǔ)特色

    59. 海外投資與出口貿(mào)易的相互關(guān)系

    60. 文化和地理因素對(duì)外商在中國(guó)直接投資的影響

    61. 綠色壁壘對(duì)關(guān)稅壁壘的替代效應(yīng)研究

    62. 新貿(mào)易保護(hù)主義的政策調(diào)整與我國(guó)貿(mào)易發(fā)展

    63. 貿(mào)易磨檫及其解決機(jī)制研究

    64. UCP600-信用證領(lǐng)域的新規(guī)則探討

    65. 論<<聯(lián)合國(guó)國(guó)際貨物銷(xiāo)售合同公約>>的適用范圍及總則

    66. 淺談<<聯(lián)合國(guó)國(guó)際貨物銷(xiāo)售合同公約>>下賣(mài)方的知識(shí)產(chǎn)權(quán)擔(dān)保義務(wù)

    67. 我國(guó)紡織業(yè)出口競(jìng)爭(zhēng)秩序現(xiàn)狀分析與對(duì)策探討

    68. 淺談來(lái)料加工與進(jìn)料加工的利弊

    69. 經(jīng)紀(jì)傭金商或場(chǎng)內(nèi)經(jīng)紀(jì)人在期貨交易中的地位

    70. 淺談商檢證書(shū)在國(guó)際貿(mào)易中的作用

    附件2 開(kāi)題報(bào)告格式

    商務(wù)學(xué)院

    高職畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)開(kāi)題報(bào)告

    題目名稱(chēng): 中國(guó)家庭企業(yè)管理創(chuàng)新研究

    題目性質(zhì):     研究論文          

    學(xué)生姓名:      XXX        

    專(zhuān)    業(yè):     工商管理       

    學(xué)    院:     XXXX        

    年    級(jí):       04級(jí)          

    指導(dǎo)教師:      XXX          

    一、    選題背景

    隨著我國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)的高速發(fā)展,以家族企業(yè)為主的民營(yíng)企業(yè)也得到了快速發(fā)展和壯大,在國(guó)民經(jīng)濟(jì)中發(fā)揮了越來(lái)越重要的作用。但是,與此同時(shí),我國(guó)的家族企業(yè)也暴露出越來(lái)越多的問(wèn)題,如家長(zhǎng)式的管理方法、企業(yè)基礎(chǔ)管理制度不健全和后續(xù)發(fā)展無(wú)力等諸多問(wèn)題。這些問(wèn)題不僅制約著我國(guó)家族企業(yè)的發(fā)展壯大,而且嚴(yán)重影響到我國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)的健康快速的發(fā)展,因此,研究我國(guó)現(xiàn)階段家族企業(yè)如何進(jìn)行管理創(chuàng)新,以最大限度地調(diào)動(dòng)家族企業(yè)員工的積極性,從而實(shí)現(xiàn)家族企業(yè)生產(chǎn)要素優(yōu)化配置,促進(jìn)家族企業(yè)持續(xù)發(fā)展已顯得尤為緊迫。

    二、研究的基本內(nèi)容,擬解決的主要問(wèn)題、研究步驟、方法

    本文從我國(guó)家族企業(yè)的實(shí)際情況出發(fā),以管理創(chuàng)新的理論為指導(dǎo),對(duì)我國(guó)家族企業(yè)如何進(jìn)行行之有效的管理創(chuàng)新進(jìn)行深入地研究。首先評(píng)述了國(guó)內(nèi)外學(xué)者對(duì)家族企業(yè)管管理創(chuàng)新含義的不同看法,提出了家族企業(yè)管理創(chuàng)新的含義、構(gòu)成要素及內(nèi)在機(jī)理,認(rèn)為我國(guó)家族企業(yè)進(jìn)行管理創(chuàng)新的有效性在于有利于更好地實(shí)現(xiàn)家族企業(yè)的經(jīng)營(yíng)目標(biāo),有利于充公調(diào)動(dòng)企業(yè)員工尤其非家族成員的積極性和創(chuàng)造性。

    其次,分析了我國(guó)現(xiàn)階段家族企業(yè)管理創(chuàng)新的現(xiàn)狀及存在的問(wèn)題,指出了我國(guó)家族企業(yè)管理模式存在諸多不足,如在管理創(chuàng)新過(guò)程中仍然存在家長(zhǎng)式?jīng)Q策、缺乏戰(zhàn)略管理和基礎(chǔ)薄弱等諸多問(wèn)題,所有這些在客觀上要求創(chuàng)建一種新的管理模式以促進(jìn)家族企業(yè)健康快速發(fā)展。

    再次,要?jiǎng)?chuàng)建一種適合我國(guó)家族企業(yè)實(shí)情的管理模式,就必須全面準(zhǔn)確地把握好我國(guó)家族企業(yè)所面臨的外部環(huán)境。因此,本文指出了我國(guó)家族企業(yè)開(kāi)展管理創(chuàng)新面臨著外部環(huán)境的特殊性和復(fù)雜性。

    三、研究工作進(jìn)度

    1、教師報(bào)題(2006.11.1----11.15)

    2、網(wǎng)上公布畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)題目和指導(dǎo)教師(2006.11.20)

    3、學(xué)生選題(2006.11.20---12. 15)

    4、落實(shí)任務(wù)(學(xué)生與導(dǎo)師見(jiàn)面,交電子郵箱地址)(2006.12. 1---12. 25)

    5、學(xué)生上交開(kāi)題報(bào)告(紙字稿)(2006.12.25----2007.1.15)

    6、中期論文檢查(交電子稿)   (2007.4月1日前)

    7、論文上交(紙字稿附電子稿)(2007.4.15----2007.5.1)

    8、07屆畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)答辯(評(píng)定學(xué)生成績(jī))(2007.6月初)

    9、07屆優(yōu)秀論文評(píng)定(2007.6.15)

    10、07屆優(yōu)秀論文匯報(bào)會(huì)(2007.6下旬)

    四、主要參考文獻(xiàn)

    [1]顧文靜,溫州民營(yíng)企業(yè)實(shí)行委托---制的障礙分析,經(jīng)濟(jì)管理。2002.2

    [2]甘德安,中國(guó)家族企業(yè)研究,中國(guó)社會(huì)科學(xué)出版社,2002年版

篇10

［中圖分類(lèi)號(hào)］G642.4 ［文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼］A ［文章編號(hào)］1009－5349（2012）02－0195－02

引言

根據(jù)開(kāi)放教育本科英語(yǔ)（教育方向）教學(xué)計(jì)劃的規(guī)定，學(xué)員在基本修完本專(zhuān)業(yè)規(guī)定的必修課和選修課后，進(jìn)入以撰寫(xiě)畢業(yè)論文為主的集中實(shí)踐環(huán)節(jié)。教學(xué)實(shí)踐設(shè)計(jì)環(huán)節(jié)即畢業(yè)論文設(shè)計(jì)是開(kāi)放教育本科英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)教育方向的一個(gè)極為重要的環(huán)節(jié)。在本文中，筆者基于近五年的畢業(yè)論文指導(dǎo)實(shí)踐基礎(chǔ)，闡述了開(kāi)放教育英語(yǔ)本科畢業(yè)論文的特點(diǎn)，分析了畢業(yè)論文寫(xiě)作中存在的問(wèn)題和不足之處，并在此基礎(chǔ)上提出了相應(yīng)的對(duì)策與建議。

一、開(kāi)放教育本科英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)畢業(yè)論文的特點(diǎn)

開(kāi)放教育本科英語(yǔ)教育專(zhuān)業(yè)學(xué)員所寫(xiě)的畢業(yè)論文除了學(xué)術(shù)性（scholarly）、創(chuàng)新性（original）、規(guī)范性（formal）這幾個(gè)畢業(yè)論文的基本特征外，還應(yīng)體現(xiàn)英語(yǔ)教育的職業(yè)性（professional）和過(guò)程性。

（一）畢業(yè)論文的設(shè)計(jì)應(yīng)體現(xiàn)理論聯(lián)系教育實(shí)踐原則

所謂“學(xué)有所用”，學(xué)員畢業(yè)論文的選題要結(jié)合自己的課堂教學(xué)實(shí)踐，真正解決本人在教學(xué)實(shí)踐中遇到的客觀存在的問(wèn)題。畢業(yè)論文指導(dǎo)教師應(yīng)就“教學(xué)行為研究”的基本要求和原則面向全體學(xué)員以講座或課程的形式進(jìn)行指導(dǎo)。整篇畢業(yè)論文至少要體現(xiàn)有四次教學(xué)研究記錄或教學(xué)日記；要有一次課堂教學(xué)的錄像或錄音；要有原始調(diào)查問(wèn)卷，或座談的錄音等，以保證教育教學(xué)這一職業(yè)性的凸顯。

（二）畢業(yè)論文的設(shè)計(jì)應(yīng)該體現(xiàn)過(guò)程性原則

整個(gè)畢業(yè)論文設(shè)計(jì)必須經(jīng)過(guò)問(wèn)題分析、方案設(shè)計(jì)、項(xiàng)目實(shí)施、項(xiàng)目評(píng)估和項(xiàng)目報(bào)告幾個(gè)階段。學(xué)員的研究必須針對(duì)其課堂中確確實(shí)實(shí)反映出的問(wèn)題，方案的設(shè)計(jì)必須符合要求，實(shí)施階段必須嚴(yán)格監(jiān)控，保證有一個(gè)月的實(shí)施時(shí)間，指導(dǎo)教師對(duì)學(xué)生的研究要如實(shí)評(píng)估，項(xiàng)目報(bào)告，亦即論文必須符合論文的寫(xiě)作規(guī)范，要體現(xiàn)指導(dǎo)過(guò)程。整個(gè)設(shè)計(jì)環(huán)節(jié)由5個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)組成：

1.項(xiàng)目啟動(dòng)：指導(dǎo)教師可采用集體或分散等指導(dǎo)方式，介紹研究原則和研究方法，布置研究任務(wù)；

2.問(wèn)題分析和方案設(shè)計(jì)：學(xué)員分析自己課堂教學(xué)中反映出的問(wèn)題，設(shè)計(jì)問(wèn)題解決方案；

3.項(xiàng)目實(shí)施：學(xué)員通過(guò)課堂教學(xué)具體實(shí)施方案；

4.項(xiàng)目評(píng)估：學(xué)員運(yùn)用評(píng)估手段和方法，對(duì)項(xiàng)目的事實(shí)情況及結(jié)果進(jìn)行評(píng)估；

5.項(xiàng)目報(bào)告：學(xué)員根據(jù)論文寫(xiě)作規(guī)范，用英文寫(xiě)出正文4000詞左右的項(xiàng)目報(bào)告，同時(shí)提供項(xiàng)目實(shí)施過(guò)程中的所有原始材料。

在整個(gè)論文的寫(xiě)作過(guò)程中，項(xiàng)目啟動(dòng)是整個(gè)論文寫(xiě)作的理論基礎(chǔ)；問(wèn)題分析和方案設(shè)計(jì)確定論文研究方向；項(xiàng)目實(shí)施是論文實(shí)用價(jià)值體現(xiàn)的關(guān)鍵環(huán)節(jié)；項(xiàng)目評(píng)估是對(duì)論文學(xué)術(shù)價(jià)值的提煉；項(xiàng)目報(bào)告是對(duì)整個(gè)寫(xiě)作痕跡的保留。這五個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)環(huán)環(huán)相扣，缺一不可，相輔相成，層層遞進(jìn)。

二、撰寫(xiě)開(kāi)放教育本科英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)畢業(yè)論文存在的問(wèn)題及其對(duì)策

畢業(yè)論文寫(xiě)作對(duì)于開(kāi)放教育本科英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)的學(xué)員來(lái)說(shuō)非常具有挑戰(zhàn)性，因?yàn)槌送瓿梢话惝厴I(yè)論文所要完成的各個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)以外，英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)的學(xué)生還需用英文進(jìn)行畢業(yè)論文的寫(xiě)作。要想順利完成英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)畢業(yè)論文設(shè)計(jì),學(xué)員要從論文的選題、時(shí)間安排及寫(xiě)作心態(tài)三方面同步著手。

（一）選題問(wèn)題

開(kāi)放教育學(xué)員本身寫(xiě)作水平不高（大多學(xué)員學(xué)歷為中專(zhuān)），面對(duì)論文選題往往要么望而卻步，要么求大求空，無(wú)法駕馭論文寫(xiě)作。要解決畢業(yè)論文選題難這個(gè)問(wèn)題，在具體的畢業(yè)論文指導(dǎo)實(shí)踐中，指導(dǎo)教師則需著力推進(jìn)“兩個(gè)兼容”原則。該原則有利于學(xué)員對(duì)自己的教學(xué)實(shí)踐進(jìn)行反思，并學(xué)以致用。

1.原則之一：教學(xué)實(shí)踐和學(xué)術(shù)研究兼容。由于開(kāi)放教育本科英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)的學(xué)員大多數(shù)是中小學(xué)一線教師，有著相當(dāng)豐富的教學(xué)經(jīng)驗(yàn)，駕馭本專(zhuān)業(yè)與自己工作實(shí)踐聯(lián)系緊密的論文選題會(huì)相對(duì)來(lái)說(shuō)容易得多。其次，學(xué)員對(duì)自己多年來(lái)的教學(xué)實(shí)踐進(jìn)行反思和思考，整理和提煉教學(xué)心得，再用于指導(dǎo)自己的教學(xué)實(shí)踐，這樣的論文很有實(shí)踐性和指導(dǎo)性。最后要注意在強(qiáng)調(diào)聯(lián)系教育實(shí)踐的同時(shí)，也不能輕視了畢業(yè)論文的規(guī)范性，學(xué)員通過(guò)英文寫(xiě)作鍛煉了英文寫(xiě)作技巧，同時(shí)也對(duì)論文寫(xiě)作的規(guī)范要求進(jìn)行了寫(xiě)作實(shí)踐。

2.原則之二：個(gè)人特長(zhǎng)和實(shí)際情況兼容。學(xué)員進(jìn)行畢業(yè)論文的選題時(shí)還要考慮自己的特長(zhǎng)、綜合知識(shí)水平、學(xué)術(shù)科研能力和客觀條件。學(xué)員最好選擇自身擅長(zhǎng)并且有一定興趣的題目。擅長(zhǎng)能表現(xiàn)出學(xué)員對(duì)該論題有較深的認(rèn)識(shí)思考及一定的實(shí)踐經(jīng)驗(yàn)，能降低寫(xiě)作難度，更充分地發(fā)揮個(gè)人的主觀能動(dòng)性，從而做到素材充實(shí)，個(gè)人見(jiàn)解深刻，針對(duì)性強(qiáng)。指導(dǎo)老師可幫助學(xué)生對(duì)歷年的論文題目進(jìn)行歸類(lèi)，然后就每一類(lèi)給出具體實(shí)例，讓學(xué)員親身體驗(yàn)，和學(xué)員共同探討，尋找自己感興趣、熟悉或是能駕馭的題目。歷年論文題目基本可劃分為教學(xué)實(shí)踐經(jīng)驗(yàn)總結(jié)、學(xué)生心理研究、學(xué)科思想、學(xué)生非智力因素等方面。

（二）時(shí)間問(wèn)題

由于開(kāi)放教育本科英語(yǔ)專(zhuān)業(yè)學(xué)員大多為成人或在職中小學(xué)英語(yǔ)教師，工作負(fù)擔(dān)沉重，家庭生活壓力大，在完成工作任務(wù)和照顧好家庭之余用于論文寫(xiě)作的時(shí)間就非常有限，因此時(shí)間的合理安排和使用是畢業(yè)論文按期按質(zhì)完成的重要保障。畢業(yè)論文的時(shí)間安排表如下：

從上表可以看出，在教學(xué)計(jì)劃中留出用于畢業(yè)論文寫(xiě)作的時(shí)間本身就非常有限，且由于是安排在最后一個(gè)學(xué)期，面臨畢業(yè)，論文已無(wú)延期上交的可能性，因?qū)W員自身不夠重視或工作忙等原因最后只能選擇放棄論文答辯的現(xiàn)象屢見(jiàn)不鮮。為改變這一無(wú)論是學(xué)員還是指導(dǎo)教師都不愿意看到的局面，筆者建議首先學(xué)員應(yīng)當(dāng)重視畢業(yè)論文的寫(xiě)作，畢竟三年所學(xué)，畢于所寫(xiě)。學(xué)員應(yīng)當(dāng)處理好學(xué)業(yè)與工作的關(guān)系，充分、高效地使用業(yè)余時(shí)間進(jìn)行論文方案的實(shí)施及撰寫(xiě)，對(duì)寫(xiě)作過(guò)程中的困難要有充分的思想準(zhǔn)備，耐得住寂寞，忍得下艱苦。其次，作為指導(dǎo)教師則應(yīng)確實(shí)把握好論文寫(xiě)作的每個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)，運(yùn)用E-Mail、手機(jī)等現(xiàn)代化聯(lián)系方式，或告知學(xué)生可進(jìn)行雙向語(yǔ)音或視頻聯(lián)絡(luò)的網(wǎng)址（例如雅虎通、QQ、MSN等）充分與學(xué)員進(jìn)行有效溝通，指導(dǎo)到位，引導(dǎo)學(xué)員逐段完成論文，漸入佳境。按時(shí)間安排逐項(xiàng)完成各項(xiàng)寫(xiě)作任務(wù)還有賴于指導(dǎo)教師對(duì)學(xué)員的階段性檢查，定期檢查學(xué)生的工作進(jìn)度和質(zhì)量。

（三）心態(tài)問(wèn)題

學(xué)員積極的寫(xiě)作心態(tài)，是畢業(yè)論文順利完成的重要保障。積極心態(tài)的創(chuàng)立離不開(kāi)指導(dǎo)教師的培養(yǎng)和學(xué)員自身養(yǎng)成。

1.指導(dǎo)教師要為學(xué)員設(shè)置成功目標(biāo)。在長(zhǎng)達(dá)半年的畢業(yè)論文寫(xiě)作過(guò)程中，指導(dǎo)教師在學(xué)員因?yàn)檫@樣或那樣的困難導(dǎo)致論文寫(xiě)不下去時(shí),應(yīng)不厭其煩地進(jìn)行鼓勵(lì)。為了使畢業(yè)論文順利完成這一遠(yuǎn)景目標(biāo)變得不那么遙不可及，指導(dǎo)教師可以對(duì)遠(yuǎn)景目標(biāo)進(jìn)行分解，放在每一個(gè)寫(xiě)作階段，逐一完成，使得遠(yuǎn)景目標(biāo)的實(shí)現(xiàn)具備較強(qiáng)的可操作性。

2.學(xué)員對(duì)自己的論文寫(xiě)作應(yīng)持積極心態(tài)。積極心態(tài)是一種對(duì)任何人、任何情況或任何環(huán)境所把持的正確、誠(chéng)懇而且有建設(shè)性，同時(shí)也不違背法律、道德和人類(lèi)權(quán)利的思想、行為或反映。積極心態(tài)有利于畢業(yè)論文的順利完成。下圖是柳州市廣播電視大學(xué)2005-2011年部分畢業(yè)生畢業(yè)論文心理狀況調(diào)查表，可以反映出由于持不同心態(tài)的畢業(yè)生參加畢業(yè)論文寫(xiě)作會(huì)產(chǎn)生的不同結(jié)果。

柳州市廣播電視大學(xué)2005-2011年部分畢業(yè)生畢業(yè)論文心理狀況調(diào)查表

上表顯示的狀況是不能令人放心的，這樣的心態(tài)必然會(huì)引發(fā)教學(xué)、管理等方面的一系列問(wèn)題?；鞂W(xué)、浮學(xué)現(xiàn)象嚴(yán)重，缺勤、論文抄襲、拼湊等現(xiàn)象屢禁不絕。這些與上述消極心態(tài)有直接的關(guān)系。在艱辛的畢業(yè)論文創(chuàng)作過(guò)程中，學(xué)員應(yīng)抱積極心態(tài)，把自己遇到的種種失敗看成人生經(jīng)歷的寶貴財(cái)富。不論怎樣，堅(jiān)持下來(lái)，就是最大的勝利。在近五年的指導(dǎo)畢業(yè)論文的實(shí)踐中，筆者發(fā)現(xiàn)具有積極心態(tài)的學(xué)員寫(xiě)作目標(biāo)明確，動(dòng)機(jī)強(qiáng)，遇到寫(xiě)作困難時(shí)善于動(dòng)腦筋、想辦法，寫(xiě)作進(jìn)展速度快。而具有消極心態(tài)的學(xué)員在進(jìn)行畢業(yè)論文的創(chuàng)作時(shí)，往往遇難而退；面對(duì)種種寫(xiě)作困難采取逃避或是蒙混過(guò)關(guān)的辦法，其結(jié)果往往是論文不能按時(shí)上交，延期畢業(yè)。

三、結(jié)束語(yǔ)

綜上所述，堅(jiān)持“兩個(gè)兼容”原則指導(dǎo)學(xué)員選題，合理安排論文撰寫(xiě)時(shí)間，幫助學(xué)生建立積極的撰寫(xiě)心態(tài)，能較好地體現(xiàn)電大開(kāi)放教育培養(yǎng)“實(shí)用性、應(yīng)用性”人才的辦學(xué)宗旨，可以在一定程度上消除當(dāng)前畢業(yè)論文寫(xiě)作的尷尬狀況。畢業(yè)論文是一個(gè)極其艱辛的實(shí)施過(guò)程，只要學(xué)員合理安排好論文寫(xiě)作時(shí)間，保持積極的寫(xiě)作心態(tài)就能順利完成畢業(yè)論文的寫(xiě)作，參加論文答辯，達(dá)到個(gè)人的學(xué)術(shù)研究高峰。

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篇11

原因分析以上分析表明學(xué)生畢業(yè)論文在選題、內(nèi)容與結(jié)構(gòu)、文獻(xiàn)資料以及實(shí)踐性論文方面都存在或多或少，或大或小的毛病，這其中有主觀原因，也有客觀原因。1.客觀原因客觀原因主要有以下幾點(diǎn)：首先，新建本科院校大多從專(zhuān)科院校升格而來(lái)，專(zhuān)科教育以教學(xué)為主要職能，科研對(duì)教師來(lái)說(shuō)只是“副業(yè)”[1]77，本科教育教師除了教學(xué)外，還有科研要求。但是新建本科院校辦學(xué)時(shí)間都比較短，科研氛圍積淀不足，整體師資在科研方面比較薄弱，很難為學(xué)生提供有效的指導(dǎo)。其次，新建本科院校的生源質(zhì)量相對(duì)985、211老牌本科院校低，學(xué)生一進(jìn)來(lái)底子就比較薄，直接造成學(xué)生語(yǔ)言基本功薄弱，無(wú)法撰寫(xiě)表達(dá)流暢、語(yǔ)言規(guī)范并有一定質(zhì)量的論文。第三，新建地方本科院校大多面臨辦學(xué)經(jīng)費(fèi)不足，資金來(lái)源有限，又要進(jìn)行大量的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施建設(shè)，圖書(shū)資料建設(shè)相對(duì)滯后，實(shí)踐教學(xué)流于形式，實(shí)踐項(xiàng)目難以實(shí)質(zhì)跟上，這在很大程度上影響畢業(yè)論文的質(zhì)量及實(shí)踐性論文的開(kāi)展。第四，教學(xué)改革沒(méi)有跟上，語(yǔ)言課還是按照老套的教學(xué)方式，重記憶與操練，輕分析和思辯，缺乏對(duì)學(xué)生邏輯思維和分析判斷能力的培養(yǎng)和訓(xùn)練。因此，學(xué)生就缺乏發(fā)現(xiàn)問(wèn)題、提出問(wèn)題和解決問(wèn)題的能力。2.主觀原因主觀原因主要涉及學(xué)生與教師兩個(gè)層面：第一，學(xué)生對(duì)畢業(yè)論文重視不夠，認(rèn)識(shí)不足，態(tài)度不認(rèn)真，存在畏難情緒、依賴心理。發(fā)現(xiàn)不少學(xué)生對(duì)指導(dǎo)教師提出的修改意見(jiàn)，不認(rèn)真查閱資料，仔細(xì)修改，而是一次又一次更改選題，以為只要簡(jiǎn)單“好過(guò)”就行。有些學(xué)生想走“捷徑”，直接到網(wǎng)上尋找“現(xiàn)成”的材料，東拼西湊、簡(jiǎn)單粘貼，把艱巨的修改任務(wù)交給導(dǎo)師。有些學(xué)生將畢業(yè)論文“束之高閣”，一拖再拖，直到要畢業(yè)了都還交不了差。其次，由于有些院校對(duì)畢業(yè)論文只重視結(jié)果管理，忽視過(guò)程管理，甚至疏于管理，調(diào)查中發(fā)現(xiàn)有些院系沒(méi)有設(shè)立專(zhuān)人負(fù)責(zé)畢業(yè)論文管理，有些責(zé)任心不強(qiáng)的指導(dǎo)教師，對(duì)所指導(dǎo)的學(xué)生要么放任自流，要么敷衍了事，要么流于形式，沒(méi)有給學(xué)生提供真正的指導(dǎo)。

對(duì)策與建議